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The Kingdom of Spain charts its origin in the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella in 1469. Their union, and their rule, triggered a war that forged the modern world. -
King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry is best known for his six marriages, and for his efforts to have his first marriage annulled. His disagreement with Pope Clement VII about such an annulment led Henry to initiate the English Reformation, separating the Church of England from papal authority
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After Henry's death in 1547, two of Elizabeth's half-siblings would sit on the throne. Edward VI & Mary I. (“Bloody Mary”) Upon Mary's death in 1558, went on to become one of England's most illustrious monarchs.
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The Edict of Nantes, 1598. The Edict of Nantes, issued under Henry of Navarre after he ascended to the French throne as Henry IV, effectively ended the French Wars of Religion by granting official tolerance to Protestantism. -
Don Quixote is a Spanish epic novel by Miguel de Cervantes. Originally published in two parts, in 1605 and 1615, its full title is The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha or, in Spanish, El ingenioso hidalgo don Quixote de la Mancha. -
The Thirty Years' War was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, lasting from 1618 to 1648
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In 1628 the English Parliament sent this statement of civil liberties to King Charles I. The next recorded milestone in the development of human rights was the Petition of Rights, produced in 1628 by the English Parliament and sent to Charles I as a statement of civil liberties. -
The reign of Louis XIV is often referred to as “Le Grand Siècle," forever associated with the image of an absolute monarch and a strong, centralized state. Coming to the throne at a tender age, tutored by Cardinal Mazarin, the Sun King embodied the principles of absolutism.
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When the Long Parliament first met in November 1640 its Members, in both houses, were almost unanimous in their condemnation of the non-parliamentary policies of Personal Rule. -
The Peace of Westphalia concluded in 1648 in Münster (Germany), ended the Thirty Years' War, which started with an anti-Habsburg revolt in Bohemia in 1618 but became an entanglement of different conflicts concerning the constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, religion, and the state system of Europe. -
Hobbes wrote many books and contributed to many academic fields, but his 1651 book Leviathan or the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiastical and civil is the one he is best remembered for. -
Known as "the Merry Monarch," Charles II was king of Great Britain and Ireland from 1660 to 1685. His political adaptability enabled him to guide his country through the religious unrest between Anglicans, Catholics, and dissenters that came to signify much of his reign.
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Peter the Great, born Petr Alekseevich Romanov, was Tsar, later Emperor, of Russia from 1682 until his death in 1725, co-reigning with his half-brother, Ivan V, from 1682 to 1696.
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Within 30 years of Charles II's restoration to the throne in 1660, England was once again on the verge of civil war. In 1688 the country was invaded by a foreign army and its King fled, as the Crown was offered by Parliament to his own nephew and son-in-law. Yet these events are usually called the Glorious Revolution. -
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The English also have a document called a Bill of Rights, mainly the work of the English Parliament but associated with “The Glorious Revolution” in 1688, when Prince William and Queen Mary succeeded to the throne on the abdication of King James II. -
Two Treatises of Government, major statement of the political philosophy of the English philosopher John Locke, published in 1689 but substantially composed some years before then. -
Robinson Crusoe is a novel by Daniel Defoe, first published on 25 April 1719. The first edition credited the work's protagonist Robinson Crusoe as its author, leading many readers to believe he was a real person and the book a travelogue of true incidents. -
Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels was first published in 1726 under the title Travels into several Remote Nations of the World. The fantastical narrative was initially presented as a factual account written by 'Lemuel Gulliver, first a surgeon, and then a captain of several ships'. -
Frederick II ruled Prussia from 1740 until his death, leading his nation through multiple wars with Austria and its allies. His daring military tactics expanded and consolidated Prussian lands, while his domestic policies transformed his kingdom into a modern state and formidable European power.
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The Spirit of the Laws is a treatise on political theory, as well as a pioneering work in comparative law, published in 1748. Originally published anonymously, as was the norm, its influence outside France was aided by its rapid translation into other languages -
The Seven Years' War was a global conflict that involved most of the European great powers, and was fought primarily in Europe, the Americas, and Asia-Pacific. Other concurrent conflicts include the French and Indian War, the Carnatic Wars and the Anglo-Spanish War.
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In 1759 the great French philosopher Voltaire published his satirical novel, "Candide," an undisputed masterpiece of the 18th century. -
George III, who ruled between 1760 and 1820, was the first truly British monarch of the Hanoverian kings.
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The Social Contract is a political piece of writing that serves as a pylon for the democracies of today, as it theorizes the elements of a free state where people agree to coexist with each other under the rules of a common body that represents the general will. -
She came to power after overthrowing her husband, Peter III. Under her long reign, inspired by the ideas of the Enlightenment, Russia experienced a renaissance of culture and sciences, which led to the founding of many new cities, universities, and theatres, along with large-scale immigration from the rest of Europe and the recognition of Russia as one of the great powers of Europe.
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Joseph II, Holy Roman emperor (1765–90), at first co-ruler with his mother, Maria Theresa (1765–80), and then sole ruler (1780–90) of the Austrian Habsburg dominions.
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The Boston Massacre was a confrontation in Boston on March 5, 1770, in which a group of nine British soldiers shot five people of a crowd of three or four hundred who were harassing them verbally and throwing various projectiles. -
Diderot's Encyclopedia is a twenty-eight-volume reference book published between 1751 and 1772 by André Le Breton and edited by translator and philosopher Denis Diderot. -
The Boston Tea Party was an American political and mercantile protest by the Sons of Liberty in Boston, Massachusetts, on December 16, 1773. -
The Coercive Acts of 1774, known as the Intolerable Acts in the American colonies, was a series of four laws passed by the British Parliament to punish the colony of Massachusetts Bay for the Boston Tea Party. -
The Battles of Lexington and Concord were the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War. The battles were fought on April 19, 1775, in Middlesex County, Province of Massachusetts Bay, within the towns of Lexington, Concord, Lincoln, Menotomy, and Cambridge. -
An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, generally referred to by its shortened title The Wealth of Nations, is the magnum opus of the Scottish economist and moral philosopher Adam Smith. -
The signing of the United States Declaration of Independence occurred primarily on August 2, 1776, at the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia, later to become known as Independence Hall. -
The siege of Yorktown, also known as the Battle of Yorktown, the surrender at Yorktown, or the German battle because of the presence of Germans in all three armies, began September 28, 1781 and ended on October 19, 1781, in Yorktown, Virginia
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This treaty, signed on September 3, 1783, between the American colonies and Great Britain, ended the American Revolution and formally recognized the United States as an independent nation. -
Written in 1787, ratified in 1788, and in operation since 1789, the United States Constitution is the world's longest-surviving written charter of government. -
On 20 June 1789, the members of the French Third Estate took the Tennis Court Oath in the tennis court which had been built in 1686 for the use of the Versailles palace. -
The Storming of the Bastille occurred in Paris, France, on 14 July 1789, when revolutionary insurgents stormed and seized control of the medieval armory, fortress, and political prison known as the Bastille. At the time, the Bastille represented royal authority in the center of Paris. -
The Women's March on Versailles was a riot that took place during this first stage of the French Revolution. It was spontaneously organized by women in the marketplaces of Paris, on the morning of October 5, 1789. They complained over the high price and scant availability of bread, marching from Paris to Versailles. -
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, set by France's National Constituent Assembly in 1789, is a human civil rights document from the French Revolution. -
The Declaration of the Rights of Woman was written on 14 September 1791 by French activist, feminist, and playwright Olympe de Gouges in response to the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. -
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman was written in 1791 and published in 1792, with a second edition appearing that same year. It was sold as volume 1 of the work, but Wollstonecraft never wrote any subsequent volumes. -
Started in 1789 with a Declaration of the Rights of Man. The Radical Phase of 1792-1794 is when most atrocities took place. France was ruled by a Committee for Public Safety.
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The National Convention was the constituent assembly of the Kingdom of France for one day and the French First Republic for the rest of its existence during the French Revolution, following the two-year National Constituent Assembly and the one-year Legislative Assembly. -
The Committee of Public Safety was created by the National Convention in 1793 with the intent to defend the nation against foreign and domestic enemies, as well as to oversee the new functions of the executive government. Members were elected and served for a period of one month. -
The Reign of Terror was a period of the French Revolution when, following the creation of the First Republic, a series of massacres and numerous public executions took place in response to revolutionary fervor, anticlerical sentiment, and accusations of treason by the Committee of Public Safety.
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Between 1795 and 1799, France was ruled by a five-man executive committee called the Directory and a legislature of two chambers: the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Ancients. 2. This government was formed after the passing of the Constitution of Year III in mid-1795.
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The Directory was the governing five-member committee in the French First Republic from 2 November 1795 until 10 November 1799, when it was overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte in the Coup of 18 Brumaire and replaced by the Consulate. -
In May 1804, he became Emperor of the French under the name of Napoleon I, and was the architect of France's recovery following the Revolution before setting out to conquer Europe, which led to his downfall. -
The Battle of Trafalgar was a naval engagement that took place on 21 October 1805 between the British Royal Navy and the combined fleets of the French and Spanish Navies during the War of the Third Coalition of the Napoleonic Wars. -
The Battle of Austerlitz, also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, was one of the most important and decisive engagements of the Napoleonic Wars. The battle occurred near the town of Austerlitz in the Austrian Empire. -
The Battle of Leipzig, also known as the Battle of the Nations, was fought from 16 to 19 October 1813 at Leipzig, Saxony. The Coalition armies of Austria, Prussia, Sweden, and Russia, led by Tsar Alexander I and Karl von Schwarzenberg, decisively defeated the Grande Armée of French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. -
Napoleon's exile on Elba—an island in the Tyrrhenian Sea just 10 miles from the Italian mainland—lasted from May 1814 to March 1815 -
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Congress of Vienna, an assembly in 1814–15 that reorganized Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. It began in September 1814, five months after Napoleon I's first abdication, and completed its “Final Act” in June 1815, shortly before the Waterloo campaign and the final defeat of Napoleon. -
Napoleon arrived in St Helena on 15th October 1815, after ten weeks at sea on board the HMS Northumberland. William Balcombe, employee of the East India Company and one-time family friend of the French emperor, put Napoleon up at Briars Pavilion when he first arrived on the island.