-
Independence of the US
During the American War of Independence (1775), the Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776 by representatives of the 13 Colonies. They declared themselves a republic (United States of America). The war ended in 1783, when Great Britain accepted their independence and signed the Treaty of Versailles. -
French Revolution
France was going through an economic crisis, hunger and an unfair tax system, which led people to desire social and political change, intensified by the ideas of the Enlightenment. French Revolution started with the storming of Bastille in 1789. In 1792, the French Republic was established. Reign of Terror began in 1793. A new regime, the Directory, took power in France in 1795. The French Revolution ended in 1799, with Napoleon's coup d'etat abolishing the Directory. -
Napoleonic Empire
Napoleon declared himself Emperor of France in 1804. He reformed French society based on the principles of the French Revolution. He put an end to the institutions of the Ancien Régime with the approval of the French Civil Code. His conquests created an empire that made him the master of most of Europe by 1810. He was defeated in 1813 at the Battle of Leipzig and exiled to the island of Elba in 1814, but he escaped and ruled in France until the Battle of Waterloo, where he was defeated in 1815. -
Period: to
Ferdinand VII
He was the king of Spain when Napoleon's invasion happened. He abdicated to be replaced by Napoleon's brother. -
Period: to
Spanish-American Independence
Different wars in America led to the political independence of multiple countries from Spain. -
Period: to
The war of Independence
This war confronted Spain and the government of Napoleon, whose objective was to achieve the Spanish throne. The Spanish won, avoiding this to happen. -
Constitution of Cádiz
It was the first constitution approved in Spain. -
Congress of Vienna
It aimed to return the political order of the Ancien Régime. Monarchs that had been deposed would be returned to theur thrones. European powers agreed to suppress any revolutionary movements that threathened the status quo. The Holy Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria) and the Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Austria, Prussia, UK) would help maintain the balance of power in Europe. -
1820 revolutions
In Spain, Riego's "pronunciamiento" led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. The initial success of the revolution in Spain inspired revolutions in Portugal Naples, and Greece. The revolution in Greece was the only one to succeed and it resulted in Greek independence. -
Period: to
The Liberal Triennium
Introduced reformist policies, particularly against the church. Reactionary movements formed against the liberals. -
Monroe Doctrine
US position that opposes European colonialism in the Western Hemisphere. -
1830 revolutions
In France, an uprising led to the abdication of King Charles X. Louis-Philippe d'Orléans was proclaimed king on the condition that he complied with the Charter of 1814.
A liberal and nationalist revolution led to Belgian independence. -
Period: to
Isabel II
Her reign marked the end of absolutism in Spain and established a constitutional monarchy. -
The Opium Wars
It was a conflict involving the UK and China. In these wars, Hong Kong was forcefully given to the UK for 150 years and China had to grant extensive trade privileges to European powers. -
1848 revolutions
In France, Louis-Philippe abdicated after an uprising and the Second French Republic was formed.
The revolution against absolutism led to a violent class struggle. Executive power was strenghened and Napoleon Bonaparte became president. Later on, he established the Second French Empire as Napoleon III.
Although the wave of revolutions spread across Europe, they failed. -
American Civil War
It was a civil war in the US between the North (the Union) and the South (the Confederacy). It was a result of the dispute over whether slavery would be permitted to expand into western territories or not. -
Meiji Restoration
It was a political event that restored practical imperial rule to Japan. -
Italian unification
The unification was influenced by Mazzini's nationalist ideas and the Risorgiamiento. In 1859 the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia annexed Lombardy. Other regions were also annexed. In 1860 Garibaldi conquered Naples and Sicily, Venice was annexed in 1866 and unification was completed with the occupation of Rome in 1870 and the integration of the Papal States. Rome became the capital of the kingdom, a constitutional monarchy was established and Victor Emmanuel II became the first king. -
Bismarckian alliances
They were a system of international alliances that Otto Von Bismarck formed after the first franco-prussian war to isolate France. -
German unification
Creation of a common economic area (Zollverein) was a precursor to unification. It was influenced by conservative and imperialist nationalism. It was designed by Otto von Bismarck. Unification began with Prussia's defeat of Denmark in 1864 and annexation of Schleswig and Holstein. In 1866 Prussia defeated Austria and established the German Confederation. The Second Reich had been established by 1871. In that year, Germany defeated France in the Franco-Prussian War and annexed Alsace-Lorraine. -
Period: to
First Spanish Republic
It was proclaimed by the Cortes after Amadeo I's abdication. Politics were unstable (Third Carlist war, lack of agreement among republicans). There were multiple presidents, until General Martínez Campos 1874 military uprising proclaimed Alfonso XII King of Spain and the republic ended. -
The Bourbon Restoration
With General Martínez Campos' uprising and the end of the republic, the Bourbon family came back to the throne. -
Alfonso XII
He was Isabel II's son. He was proclaimed king when the First Spanish Republic ended, and his reign marked the beginning of the Restoration. -
Boer War
It was a result of the UK going against the Dutch settlers in South Africa. -
Berlin Conference
The UK wanted to expand their colonies in Africa from north to south and France wanted to do so from west to east. In the Berlin Conference, an attempt to ease the tension and divide the colonies was made. -
Alfonso XIII
He was proclaimed king when he was born after the death of his father, Alfonso XII. María Cristina of Habsburg, his mother, was the regent while Alfonso XIII was too young to reign. His reign ended with the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic in 1931. -
Fashoda Incident
Dispute that took place when both France and the UK wanted to connect their African Colonies, France from west to east and the UK from north to south. -
Moroccan Crisis
It involved Germany's pledge to support Morocco against France's growing control of the region. This angered France, the UK, and Spain. -
Bloody Sunday
It was the series of events that took place on Sunday, 22 January 1905 in St Petersburg when unarmed demonstrators, led by Father Georgy Gapon, were fired upon by soldiers of the Imperial Guard as they marched towards the Winter Palace to present a petition to Tsar Nicholas II of Russia. -
Balkan Wars
They were a series of two conflicts that took place in the Balkan states in 1912 and 1913. In the first one, the Balkan states of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria declared war upon the Ottoman Empire and defeated it. In the second one, Bulgaria fought against the same four countries. -
First World War
It was a military conflict that took place between 1914 and 1918. Although it began as a conflict between European powers, it spread to the rest of the continents when the colonies and the US became involved. -
February Revolution
It was the first of two revolutions that took place in Russia in 1917. Peasants and workers grouped into soviets demonstrated in St Petersburg demanding "peace, land and bread". -
October Revolution
It was a revolution in Russia led by the Bolshevik Party of Vladimir Lenin. It took place through an armed insurrection in St Petersburg. -
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
It was a peace treaty between Soviet Russia and the Central Powers. It ended Russia's involvement in the war. -
Treaty of Versailles
It was a peace treaty signed on June 28th 1919. It ended the war between Germany and most of the Allied Powers and was the most important treaty of the First World War. -
League of Nations
It was an international organization created after the First World War to provide a forum for resolving international disputes. -
Primo de Rivera's dictatorship
In 1923, Primo de Rivera led a coup d'etat against the parliamentary government of Spain. The constitution and the parliamentary government were suspended. He established the Patriotic Union as the official party and banned others, his successful Alhucemas Landing ended the Rif War in Morocco and he expanded and modernized road networks, railways and Spain's hydroelectric potential. -
Wall Street Crash
It was the collapse of the stock market. It caused the Great Depression of the 1930s and many companies went bankrupt. The number of impoverished families and unemployment levels increased. -
1931 Constitution
In June 1931, the election to choose a constituent assembly took place. The majority of seats were won by a coalition of left-wing republicans. A new constitution for Spain which included a series of progressive principles was drafted. -
Second Spanish Republic
It was the form of government in Spain from 1931 to 1939. On 12 April 1931, people voted for republican and socialist candidates in the cities. With no support left, the king went into exile. On 14 April 1931, the Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed. A provisional government was formed, but the new republic didn’t end tensions in the country. It was dissolved on 1st April 1939 after surrendering in the Spanish Civil War to the Nationalists led by General Francisco Franco. -
Asturian miners' strike
Major strike action by miners in Asturias against the new CEDA government. It eventually developed into a violent revolutionary uprising. Miners took control of the coalfields in Asturias and proclaimed a revolutionary government. The army intervened by suppressing the rebelion. -
Spanish Civil War
Conflict that took place in Spain between the Republicans and the self-named Nationalists from 1936 to 1939. It began after the failure of a coup d'etat in 1936 against the Republican government led by Generals Sanjurjo, Mola and Franco. -
Second World War
Military conflict that confronted two opposing military alliances, the Axis and the Allies. It was the deadliest conflict in history. -
Attack on Pearl Harbor
It was a surprise attack by Japan upon the US naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. This attack caused the US to formally join the war on the Allies' side. -
Operation Barbarossa
Operation Barbarossa was the invasion of the Soviet Union by Nazi Germany. Hitler's objective was to occupy Moscow and gain control of the wheat in Ukraine and the oil in the Caucasus. -
United Nations
International organisation founded at the San Francisco Conference to replace the League of Nations. Its main objectives were to maintain international peace and security, respect people's right to self-determination, protect human rights and freedoms and promote peaceful cooperation between countries. -
Atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
The dropping of atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki was authorised by the US president Harry Truman. The bombings killed between 129,000 and 226,000 people and they remain the only use of nuclear weapons in an armed conflict. After this, Japan surrendered on 2 September 1945 and ended WWII. -
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
International document adopted by the United Nations General Assembly that declares the rights and freedoms of all human beings. It was one of the first achievements of the United Nations.