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Isabella I unified Spain through her marriage to Ferdinand II of Aragon, and she financed the expedition of Christopher Columbus, leading to the discovery of the Americas. She also completed the Reconquista but infamously expelled Jews and Muslims and empowered the Spanish Inquisition.
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King Henry VIII (1491-1547) ruled England for 36 years, presiding over sweeping changes that brought his nation into the Protestant Reformation. He famously married a series of six wives in his search for political alliance, marital bliss and a healthy male heir.
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Charles I of Spain, born on February 24, 1500, was king of Spain from 1516 to 1556 and Holy Roman emperor, as Charles V, from 1519 to 1558.
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Charles V inherited a vast empire that stretched from one end of Europe to the other. He acquired the Spanish throne from his parents, Philip I and Queen Joan, and his maternal grandparents and Burgundy through his father's mother—who had been the Duchess of Burgundy.
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Defined the right of Henry VIII to be supreme head on earth of the Church of England, thereby severing ecclesiastical links with Rome. -
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El Greco, byname of Doménikos Theotokópoulos, (born 1541, Candia [Iráklion], Crete—died April 7, 1614, Toledo, Spain), master of Spanish painting, whose highly individual dramatic and expressionistic style met with the puzzlement of his contemporaries but gained newfound appreciation in the 20th century. -
was a member of the Habsburg dynasty. He served as king of the Spaniards
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During her reign, Elizabeth I established Protestantism in England; defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588; maintained peace inside her previously divided country; and created an environment where the arts flourished. She was sometimes called the "Virgin Queen", as she never married.
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was the revolt in the Low Countries against the rule of the Habsburg King Philip II of Spain
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Naval engagement in the waters off southwestern Greece between the allied Christian forces of the Holy League and the Ottoman Turks during an Ottoman campaign to acquire the Venetian island of Cyprus.
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a Spanish ship was captured by Sir Francis Drake in the English Channel
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The first of the Bourbon kings of France, Henry IV brought unity and prosperity to the country after the ruinous 16th-century Wars of Religion. Though he was not a great strategist, his courage and gallantry made him a great military leader.
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The Edict of Nantes was signed in April 1598 by King Henry IV and granted the Calvinist Protestants of France, also known as Huguenots, substantial rights in the nation, which was in essence completely Catholic. In the edict, Henry aimed primarily to promote civil unity.
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James I, king of Scotland as James VI from 1567 to 1625 and first Stuart king of England from 1603 to 1625, who styled himself “king of Great Britain.” James was a strong advocate of royal absolutism.
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Don Quixote is a middle-aged gentleman from the region of La Mancha in central Spain. Obsessed with the chivalrous ideals touted in books he has read, he decides to take up his lance and sword to defend the helpless and destroy the wicked.
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The Hohenzollern family historically held the title of Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia and, from 1701, they were crowned King of Prussia. In the eighteenth century under Frederick II the Great (1740-1788), Prussia was a powerful country that included large parts of Western and Northern Germany and Poland.
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The Defenestration of Prague was the catalyst that activated the worst war in European history, the Thirty Years' War. The rebels deposed Ferdinand II, set up a provisional assembly and raised an army of 16,000 troops for the nation's defence.
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a 17th-century religious conflict fought primarily in central Europe.
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was sent by English Parliament to King Charles I to complain about a series of breaches of law he had made.
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is a former royal residence located in Versailles
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was an English Parliament which lasted from 1640 until 1660.
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English Civil War saw King Charles I battle Parliament for control of the English government. The war began as a result of a conflict over the power of the monarchy and the rights of Parliament.
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Louis XIV, king of France, ruled his country, principally from his great palace at Versailles, during one of the country's most brilliant periods. Today he remains the symbol of absolute monarchy of the classical age.
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Charles was convicted of treason and executed on 30 January 1649 outside the Banqueting House in Whitehall.
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is a book written by Thomas Hobbes
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or more broadly the Acts of Trade and Navigation
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he was the 14th child of Czar Alexis by his second wife, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina.
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is the collective name for two peace treaties signed in October 1648
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Persecuted by the French Catholic government during a violent period.
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The Glorious Revolution, also called “The Revolution of 1688” and “The Bloodless Revolution,” took place from 1688 to 1689 in England. It involved the overthrow of the Catholic king James II, who was replaced by his Protestant daughter Mary and her Dutch husband, William of Orange.
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In political theory, or political philosophy, John Locke refuted the theory of the divine right of kings and argued that all persons are endowed with natural rights to life, liberty, and property and that rulers who fail to protect those rights may be removed by the people, by force if necessary.
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The bill outlined specific constitutional and civil rights and ultimately gave Parliament power over the monarchy.
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the Russian tsar Peter I the Great's forces succeeded in capturing the fortress of Azov.
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aka Philippe, duc d'Anjou
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was a conflict involving many of the leading European powers that was triggered by the death in November 1700
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It became the capital of the Russian Empire for more than two hundred years.
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Frederick II ruled Prussia from 1740 until his death, leading his nation through multiple wars with Austria and its allies. His daring military tactics expanded and consolidated Prussian lands, while his domestic policies transformed his kingdom into a modern state and formidable European power.
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was a series of peace treaties signed by the belligerents in the War of the Spanish Succession.
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The novel Robinson Crusoe tells the story of a young and impulsive Englishman that defies his parents' wishes and takes to the seas seeking adventure. The young Robinson Crusoe is shipwrecked and castaway on a remote tropical island for 28 years.
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aka Sir Robert Walpole,
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Gulliver's Travels was first published in 1726, and three centuries later it remains in full force. This famous satirical novel is both an adventure story and a devious philosophical reflection on the constitution of modern societies.
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his composing and performing beyond the liturgy by taking over, in March 1729
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Maria Theresa was the most important ruler of the age of Enlightened Absolutism and one of the most famous Habsburgs. She took over the reins of government on the death of her father Charles VI and implemented numerous enduring reforms.
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Group of related wars that took place after the death of Emperor Charles VI.
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Handel's "Messiah" is based on the traditional Christian idea that the prophet Isaiah proclaimed the coming of Jesus and his messianic status seven hundred years prior to Jesus's birth. For many, these prophetic predictions stand as proof that Jesus was indeed the long-awaited Messiah.
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Montesquieu pleaded in favor of a constitutional system of government and the separation of powers, the ending of slavery, the preservation of civil liberties and the law, and the idea that political institutions ought to reflect the social and geographical aspects of each community.
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The Encyclopédie is most famous for representing the thought of the Enlightenment. According to Denis Diderot in the article "Encyclopédie", the Encyclopédie's aim was "to change the way people think" and for people (bourgeoisie) to be able to inform themselves and to know things. -
was a targeted group of assassinations and a wave of Catholic mob violence
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is widely considered to be the first global conflict in history
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a French satire first published in 1759 by Voltaire
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The Georgian era spanned the combined reigns of the five British monarchs from the Electorate of Hanover, a member state of the Holy Roman Empire. George III was the first Hanoverian king born in England rather than Germany. His parents were Frederick, Prince of Wales and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha.
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As empress, Catherine westernized Russia. She led her country into full participation in the political and cultural life of Europe. She championed the arts and reorganized the Russian law code.
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Joseph II, Holy Roman emperor, at first coruler with his mother, Maria Theresa, and then sole ruler of the Austrian Habsburg dominions.
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also known as the Continental Congress of 1765, was a meeting held in New York
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Street fight that occurred on March 5, 1770, between a "patriot" mob, throwing snowballs, stones, and sticks, and a squad of British soldiers.
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On August 5, 1772, Russia, Prussia, and Austria signed a treaty that partitioned Poland
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American colonists, frustrated and angry at Britain for imposing “taxation without representation,” dumped 342 chests of tea, imported by the British East India Company into the harbor.
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The Intolerable Acts were punitive laws passed by the British Parliament in 1774 after the Boston Tea Party. The laws were meant to punish the Massachusetts colonists for their defiance in the Tea Party protest in reaction to changes in taxation by the British Government.
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Delegates from twelve of Britain's thirteen American colonies met to discuss America's future under growing British aggression.
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The British Army set out from Boston to capture rebel leaders Samuel Adams and John Hancock in Lexington as well as to destroy the Americans store of weapons and ammunition in Concord.
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The British Army set out from Boston to capture rebel leaders Samuel Adams and John Hancock in Lexington as well as to destroy the American's store of weapons and ammunition in Concord.
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Scottish moral philosopher by trade, wrote the book to describe the industrialized capitalist system that was upending the mercantilist system. Mercantilism held that wealth was fixed and finite and that the only way to prosper was to hoard gold and tariff products from abroad.
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The Declaration of Independence was approved by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776. The document announced the separation of 13 North American British colonies from Great Britain.
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Decisive victory for the Continental Army and a crucial turning point in the Revolutionary War.
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The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was the first written constitution of the United States. Written in 1777 and stemming from wartime urgency, its progress was slowed by fears of central authority and extensive land claims by states. It was not ratified until March 1, 1781.
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Joint Franco-American land and sea campaign that entrapped a major British army on a peninsula at Yorktown, Virginia, and forced its surrender.
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signed in Paris by representatives of King George III of Great Britain and representatives of the United States of America
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it became the official framework of the government of the United States of America when New Hampshire became the ninth of 13 states to ratify it.
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the members of the French Third Estate took the Tennis Court Oath in the tennis court which had been built in 1686 for the use of the Versailles palace.
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the members of the French Third Estate took the Tennis Court Oath in the tennis court which had been built in 1686 for the use of the Versailles palace.
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was an event that occurred in Paris, France
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Period of panic and riot by peasants and others amid rumours of an “aristocratic conspiracy” by the king and the privileged to overthrow the Third Estate.
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Concerned over the high price and scarcity of bread, women from the marketplaces of Paris led the March on Versailles.
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“Così fan Tutte” was premiered that year, followed by “La Clemenza di Tito” and “The Magic Flute” in 1791.
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Declaration of Pillnitz, joint declaration issued on August 27, 1791, by Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II and King Frederick William II of Prussia, urging European powers to unite to restore the monarchy in France.
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The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen, also known as the Declaration of the Rights of Woman, was written on 14 September 1791 by French activist, feminist, and playwright Olympe de Gouges in response to the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man.
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written by the 18th-century British proto-feminist Mary Wollstonecraft, is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy.
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the National Assembly completed the Constitution. Louis XVI had no other option but to accept the Constitution of 1791.
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is when most atrocities took place.
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was a parliament of the French Revolution
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Ultimately unwilling to cede his royal power to the Revolutionary government, Louis XVI was found guilty of treason and condemned to death. He was guillotined on January 21, 1793.
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The Committee of Public Safety was created by the National Convention in 1793 with the intent to defend the nation against foreign and domestic enemies, as well as to oversee the new functions of the executive government. Members were elected and served for a period of one month.
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commonly called The Terror, was a period of the French Revolution
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In July 1793, she lost custody of her young son, who was forced to accuse her of sexual abuse and incest before a Revolutionary tribunal. In October, she was convicted of treason and sent to the guillotine. She was 37 years old.
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The Directory was a fatal experiment in weak executive powers. It was created in reaction to the puritanical dictatorship that had existed under the Reign of Terror of 1793–94, and it would end up yielding to the more disciplined dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte.
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Napoleon became 1st Consulate after he overthrew the French Directory.
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were a series of major global conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies
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was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the Revolutionary Wars.
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In five hours of fighting, the British devastated the enemy fleet, destroying 19 enemy ships. No British ships were lost, but 1,500 British seamen were killed or wounded in the heavy fighting. The battle raged at its fiercest around the Victory, and a French sniper shot Nelson in the shoulder and chest.
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First engagement of the War of the Third Coalition and one of Napoleon's most significant victories. His 68,000 troops defeated 90,000 Russians and Austrians under General M.I.
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was begun by Napoleon to force Russia back into the Continental blockade of the United Kingdom.
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Decisive defeat for Napoleon, resulting in the destruction of what was left of French power in Germany and Poland.
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The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of Europe, an attempt to forge a peaceful balance of power in Europe.
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Napoleon Bonaparte, emperor of France and one of the greatest military leaders in history, abdicates the throne, and, in the Treaty of Fontainebleau, is banished to the Mediterranean island of Elba.
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Vague consensus among the European monarchies favouring preservation of the territorial and political status quo.
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he returned to Paris after the battles
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he escaped to France in early 1815 and raised a new Grand Army that enjoyed temporary success
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Rousseau begins The Social Contract with the most famous words he ever wrote: “Men are born free, yet everywhere are in chains.” From this provocative opening, Rousseau goes on to describe the myriad ways in which the “chains” of civil society suppress the natural birthright of man to physical freedom.
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In August he formally abdicated as Holy Roman Emperor. Charles hoped that Philip would eventually rule his whole empire, but the empire was too big to manage, Ferdinand and his son Maxmilian refused to accept Philip's succession and the Habsburg dynasty split into Austrian and Spanish branches.
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The basic principle of the Declaration was that all “men are born and remain free and equal in rights”