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German inventor Johannes Gutenberg finishes his printing press, and it starts printing for the public. This would mark a monumental moment in European history. Thanks to his printing press, Gutenberg was able to print widespread copies of the Bible. This would soon become an important tool in the upcoming Reformation that would sweep through Europe. While not a direct cause of the Reformation, the printing press made it easier to spread information. -
On October 31st, 1517, Martin Luther allegedly nailed his 95 theses on the door of the University in Wittenberg. The 95 theses were a scathing critique of the Catholic Church, especially in regards to indulgences. He argued that salvation couldn't be bought, only prayed for. Martin Luther would later be excommunicated by the Catholic Church and declared a heretic in 1521. -
One of the main tenets of Protestanism is how it attempts to make the relationship between God and believer closer, without the middle ground that is represented by the Catholic Church, By translating the Bible into a widely spoken language, Martin Luther allows people to read the Bible directly. The first edition of Martin Luther's complete translation of the Bible would be published in 1534 (the same year as Henry VIII's Act of Supremacy!) -
William Tyndale's translation of the New Testament is widely considered to have been the first have its kind to have been printed into English -
Following the Pope's refusal to allow him to divorce from his first wife, Henry VIII established the Church of England, seperating himself from the Catholic Church. Henry VIII would go on to have six wives:
- Catherine of Aragon (first marriage, annulled)
- Anne Boleyn (beheaded)
- Jane Seymour (passed away in childbirth)
- Anne of Cleves (unconsummated marriage, annulled after only 6 months)
- Catherine Howard (beheaded)
- Catherine Parr (widowed) -
In 1536, Henry VIII declared that monastaries were 'bastions of “popery"', meaning they were merely a tool for the Pope. As a result, they were disbanded and the Crown took possession of their land and income. It's important to note that monasteries were particulary important prior to their destructions, as they played in important role in everyday life. They looked after the old and the sick, and even provided a place to stay for travellers.
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The dissolution of monasteries were met with massive rebellions Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, led by common people, gentry, and members of the clergy, had two main motivations. The first was opposition to the Henry VIII's Reformation. They were outraged by the dissolution of monasteries, and demanded a return of Catholicism, meaning a return to the Pope and the restoration of Mary Tudor as Henry VIII's rightful heir. This went alongside economic grievances that greatly troubled the population.
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As a result of the Reformation, Pope Paul III convened the Council of Trent. In 25 meetings over the course of 18 years, the Council of Trent was a main part of the Vatican's Counter Reformation, leading the Catholic Church to different conclusions about the Reformation. They denounced Protestant teaching, and took resolutions about , in order to strenghten the Catholic faith. Notably, they reinforced their approval for indulgences, but clarified that false indulgences were stricly forbidden.
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Following Henry VIII's death, his only son took the crown to become Edward VI. Edward was the only child from Henry VIII's third wife Jane Seymour. Being the male child, he took precedence over his half-sisters Elizabeth and Mary. He was a fiercely Protestant king, and because of his young age, his rule was mostly governed by his uncle, the "Lord Protector of England" Edward Seymor -
Under the Protestant Edward VI, the mass book underwent a revision in order to be fully in English. This went along with other anti-Catholic reforms, cementing the place of Protestanism in England. -
In 1553, Edward VI died at only 15 years old. It is believed that he passed away from tuberculosis. -
Despite Edward VI naming Lady Jane Grey his heir, his older half-sister Mary (daughter of Catherine of Aragorn) took the throne becoming Queen of England. She was married to the King of Spain Phillip II, which allied the two nations against France. In a span of 18 months, she repealed the Protestant acts from her father and half-brother and restored Catholicism. Her persecution of Protestants, leading to the burning of over 200 of them at the stake, earned her the nickname "Bloody Mary". -
Following the death of Mary I, her half-sister Elizabeth (daughter of Anne Boleyn) took the throne. Despite Mary I requesting her to keep England Catholic, Elizabeth I would restore Protestantism, establishing the Anglican Church. Thus began the Elizabethean era, a period of relative stability led by a "Virgin Queen". -
With these two Acts, Elizabeth I set the foundations for the Church of England. She rejected the Pope's authority and made the monarch of England the head of the Church. Additionally, she set up a common way of church services, with mandatory attendance and the use of the Book of Common Prayer. -
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James, the son of Mary Stuart, was named King James VI of Scotland -
Originally, the Pope thought that Elizabeth I would go back to the Catholic Church as she had retained certain elements of it for the Anglican Church. However, he eventually issued the papal bull “Regnans in Excelsis”, which ex-communicated her and questioned her legitimacy, essentially giving Catholics a green light in any assassination attempt on her. -
6000 people, led by the Earls of
Westmorland and Northumberland, rebelled against Elizabeth I and tried to replace her with Mary Stuart. This was ultimately futile, as the rebellion was crushed. -
In 1851, the "Act to retain the Queen’s Majesty’s Subjects in their due Obedience" effectively banned Catholicism. The death penalty was given to all those converting or already Catholic, Catholic Mass was outlawed, and there were fines given to those not attending Anglican services. 163 people would be killed as a result of this ban over the next 26 years. -
Sir Walter Raleigh attempted to start a settlement in the New World, which was called Roanoke. However, the people of it vanished and it was a failure. -
During Elizabeth I reign, there were numerous Catholic plots to try and assassinate her. The plans often included replacing her with the Catholic Mary Queen of Scots (Mary Stuart). Indeed, since Mary Stuart was a threat to Elizabeth's rule, she was imprisoned. Mary Queen of Scots was found complicit in a plot to kill Elizabeth by the spymaster Francis Walsingham. As a result, Mary Queen of Scots was sentenced to death. -
Mary was executed in Fotheringham Castle on Feburary 2nd, 1587. The first strike did not correctly behead her, and so she had to be struck multiple times. She wore a bright red dress for her execution, symbolizing the color of Catholic martyrs. Allegedly, when her head rolled on the floor, her wig fell off and revealed short grey hair -
At the time, the Spanish Armada was considered the mightiest force in the world. Because of Elizabeth's support of the Dutch revolt, Spain attempted to invade England. This failed, and England's victory had enormous effects on Elizabeth's image in England. She used the victory as proof of English superiority, and as reinforcement of her legitimacy. -
The East India Company was founded by a royal charter. It would go on to be a major trade force with India and China, and it was a considerable political power as well. -
Following the passing of Elizabeth, her successor was James VI of Scotland, who also became James I of England. He maintained the religious status quo left by Elizabeth I. This led to conflicts with both Puritans and Catholics. -
The Gunpowder Plot was a plot by a group of Catholics to blow up Parliament and kill James I. However, one of the Catholics implicated in the plot, Guy Fawkes, was discovered with 36 barrels of gunpowder and so the plot was a failure. -
Jamestown was the first permanent settlement in what eventually became the 13 colonies. -
James I commissioned a new English translation of the Holy Bible. It is still widely used today. -
The Thirty Year's war was a bloody conflict that took place in the German kingdoms, pitting mostly Protestant kingdoms and France against mainly the Habsburgs and Spain.
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Following the journey of the Mayflower, carrying Puritan pilgrims to the New World, they established Plymouth Plantation in the territory of the Wampanoag tribe. The Plymouth Colony is famous for being the story that led to the modern day American holiday of Thanksgiving. -
Parliament disagreed with King James I over how to fight Spain. This outraged James I as he felt that only the King had the right to decide foreign policy, leading him to dissolve Parliament. -
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After conflicts between James I and Parliament, they finally agreed to finance the war against Spain. However, James I would pass away the following year, and the war was left for his successor, Charles I. -
The son of James I, he took the throne and proved to be an unpopular King. His wife was a Catholic, and he supported a group of Protestants called the Arminians that many feared were secretly Catholics due to their wishes to restore traditional elements of the Church). -
The Petition of Rights was a petition by Parliament trying to get Charles I to recognize the limit of his royal powers. While he did sign it, he was angered and dissolved Parliament. -
The Three Resoltuons denounced the Catholic Church, Arminians, and anybody advising to the King that he could collect custom duties alone as enemies of of England. This infuriated Charles I, who would ask to imprison the MPs responsable and dissolve Parliament again. -
This was a period of 11 years where King Charles I reigned without calling Parliament once.
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Religious reforms, such as the introduction of the New Prayer Book (Book of Common Prayer) caused mass outrage in Calvinist Scotland, leading to a petition opposing the religious policies of Charles I called the "Scottish National Covenant. This led to the Bishop's War between the Crown and Scotland.
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As a result of the Bishop's war, Parliament was called for the first time in 11 years. However, instead of raising finances, Parliament decided to vent their grievances that had built up over more than a decade. As a result, Charles I dissolved Parliament after only 3 weeks. -
After the Scottish victory in the Scottish crisis led to the humiliating Treaty of Ripon in October of 1640. As a result, Charles I was forced to call forth Parliament once again. Parliament would remain in session for another 20 years. During the Long Parliament, in order to prevent King Charles I's Personal Rule from happening ever again, the members of Parliament passed acts ensuring that they meet at least every 3 years and that they must consent to being dissolved.
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James I had implemented a plantation policy, which sent Protetants to take over Irish Catholic lands, which led up to the building of tensions between Ireland and England. Finally, in October of 1641 this led to rebellion among the Irish. In England, there were false rumors of the Irish massacring up to 4000 Protestants, enraging the English. -
As a result of the Irish Rebellion, Parliament passed the Militia Act, placing the army in control of a general chosen by Parliament. This took away the King's former power who hitherto was the one in charge of deciding who he wanted to appoint. -
This was a document voted by Parliament summing up Charles I's "wrongdoings" and making reforms, including giving the House of Commons the right to choose the King's ministers, and for Parliament to have the right to reform the Church and control any army sent into Ireland. When discussing this document, Parliament was split into two: the Parliamentarians thought that these reforms were needed, while the Royalists thought that they were too extreme and wanted a settlement with the King. -
Charles I believed five members of Parliament were plotting against the Queen, as he tried to have them arrested. He marched into the House of Commons with troops to arrest them. As a result of this, Charles I left London for York, as he was scared for his life. -
Civil War broke out for a period of 4 years between King Charles I and Parliament, leading to the death of roughly 190000 people
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After the attempted arrest of five members of Parliament, Parliament drafted up the Nineteen Propositions, which would've made Charles I a constitutional monarch. Shortly after that, Charles I formally declared war on Parliament. -
By 1944, the Parliamentarians had established the New Model Army. This was a national army that was paid for directly by Westminster, instead of being county-paid like in the past. The soldiers would carry a Bible in their breast pockets, representing the importance of their faith and sometimes even saving their lives. -
The Battle of Naseby was a major battle in the English Civil War. It resulted in substantial losses for the King's troops, and was an important victory for the Parliamentarians. -
Charles I officially surrendered, ending the First English Civil War Charles I turned himself in to the Scots, who then delivered him to Parliament. -
These texts declared that there was no power above the Parliament and established the beginings of an electorate. -
Charles I escaped from custody and went to Scotland to convince them to invade England, claiming that he would introduce Calvinism as a result. -
After the defeat of the Royalists in the Second English Civil War, there was the question of what to do with the King. While the New Model Army wanted to put him on trial, conservative MPs wanted to negotiate with him. To prevent this Colonel Pride marched into Parliament and arrested the 45 leading consevative MPs. The remaining MPs were referred to as the "Rump Parliament" and put the King on trial for high treason. -
King Charles I went to ask the Scottish for help invading England, sparking the Second English Civil War.
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England abolished the Monarchy and the House of Lords, making the island a Commonwealth, ruled as a republic. -
The Irish Catholic led Irish Rebellion was crushed by Oliver Cromwell. Memories of the rumors of the massacre of Protestants from 1641 remained, and so the conquest of Ireland had massacres against the Irish such as the siege of Drogheda and the Sack of Wexford in 1649. As a result of the conquest, Catholicism was banned, priests arrested, and Irish lands confiscated.
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King Charles I was charged with high treason, and was subsequently executed. -
Charles II, the son of the executed Charles I, was crowned the King of Scotland. He raised a Scottish Army to invade England, but his attempt was crushed by Cromwell.
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The Instrument of Government was England's first and only written constitution. It set the fondations for the Protectorate. -
On the 20th April in 1653, Cromwell dissolved the Rump Parliament. The subsequent "Barebones Parliament" broke down in a matter of months. Following that, the Commonwealth was repealed and replaced with a military dictatorship called the Protectorate, ruled by Oliver Cromwell. -
The British invaded Jamaica, which was previously a Spanish colony -
Oliver Cromwell passed away at age 59. He was replaced as Lord Protector by his son Richard Cromwell. -
Following the death of Oliver Cromwell, there was great instability in England. His son proved to be an unsuitable fit for the position of Lord Protector, and the Protectorate collapsed. Charles II sought to return to rule over England. He issued the Declaration of Breda, declaring that the past was forgiven, that he would rule with Parliament, and that he would continue religious tolerant. This claim worked, and the English monarch was restored. -
The English take over New Netherland and rename it New York. -
A bubonic plague epidemic, caused by the bacteria Yersinia Pestis, broke out, with devastating consequences. It is estimated that over 100000 people in Pondon (up to a fifth of the population) passed away. -
There were fears the the French were plotting to replace Charles II with his Catholic brother James II. -
Parliament tried to remove James II from the line of succession to the throne. This angered Charles II, as this was going against the divine right of Kings. As a result, he dissolved Parliament.
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Quakers founded the Pennsylvania colony, yearning for religious freedoms. -
Parliament invited William of Orange to "invade" England and take the throne from James II. William was married to James II's daughter, Mary, which gave him legitimacy to the throne.
James II fled to France, and William of Orange became King William III, ruling jointly with his wife Mary II.
It was called the "Glorious Revolution" because of the lack of blood that was shed during it. -
This act established freedom of worship for all Protestants in England. -
The Bill of Rights established the foundations for England following the Glorious Revolution. It established a constitutional monarchy, and it set up the rights of Parliament, basic civil rights, limited the sovereign's powers, and prevented any Catholic from ever taking the throne of England again. -
William III and Mary II had no children, and all his Stuart successors were Catholic. As a result, the Act of Settlement established the Hanoverian succession. -
Following the death of the childless Charles II of Spain, a massive conflict broke out over what to do with the remains of the might Spanish empire. The American theater of this war is also called "Queen Anne's War". As a result of this war, Britain won Acadia over the French.
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Following the death of William III, Anne, the daughter of James II, was crowned Queen of England. She was the final monarch from the House of Stuart. -
This created Great Britain, uniting Scotland and England (Wales was already part of England), and thus realizing the dream of James I. -
The Seven Years War was a major global conflict, notably fought between France and Britain. The American theater was called the "French and Indian War". It resulted in Britain conquering Florida and most of Canada over the French.
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The American War of Independance, also called the American Revolutionary War, was a conflict in the New World in which the 13 colonies declared independence from England, creating a new country called the United States of America.
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In 1800, Ireland and Great Britain passed acts unifying themselves in one United Kingdom. This new unified state came into effect on January 1st, 1801.