The Fenian Invasions of Canada and the American Response: An Examination of events from 1850-1871
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Suppression of a Young Ireland Movement by Britain
“In 1848, the British Government suppressed an armed insurrection by the Young Ireland movement, and many of these rebels…made their way to the United States.” (https://niagarafallsmuseums.ca/pdf/The-Fenian-Raids-1866.pdf) -
The American-based Fenian Invasions of Canada between 1866-1870
This investigation will examine key events prior, during and after the Fenian invasions to gain a real sense of the complexity of Canadian-American relations during this volatile time period. Photo Credits: Battle of Ridgeway
The charge of the Fenians under Colonel O'Neill at the Battle of Ridgeway, near Niagara, Canada West, on 2 June 1866 (courtesy Library and Archives Canada/C-18737).
(https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/fenian-raids/) -
Thesis & Scope
Thesis: "The frontier disturbances encouraged a sense of solidarity among Canadians and gave them a war that was entirely their own to commemorate" (Robert Bothwell, 117). Scope: This timeline will examine the Irish invasions by the Fenian Brotherhood based in the United States, of Canada between 1866-1871. The events leading up the invasions from 1848 onwards are crucial to understanding why the Americans took specific actions, and how it affected Canada. -
What were some Key Events leading to the Fenian Invasion?
The events leading up to the Fenian invasions include the American Civil War of 1861-1865, and Irish suppression in the United Kingdom. The events also include the Confederate raid of 1864, and the how it affected Canadian American relations. These crucial events shaped reactionary policies, some of which were reverted such as the denunciation of the Rush-Bagot agreement. -
The 1850's Political Environment: The United States
The American Civil War altered not only Canada’s relations with the United States, but its connection to Great Britain. (Robert Bothwell, 112). The United States of the 1850s was politically paralyzed, drifting towards disunion and possible collapse. (Robert Bothwell, 112) Slavery was a major issue in American politics, which created differences within the government. -
Canada's Militia Act
“In 1855, Canada passed a Militia Act creating cavalry, infantry, and artillery units. Strained Anglo-American relations during the American Civil War (1861-65) led Britain to send 11,000 troops to protect its North American colonies.”
http://www.warmuseum.ca/cwm/exhibitions/chrono/1774fenian_e.shtml Prior to the Fenian invasion, Canada was “divided by language and religion, and increasingly by constitutional deadlock in the province of Canada.” (Robert Bothwell, 112) -
British Entanglement with the US Navy: A Win for the Union
In December 1861, the US Navy captured Confederate convoys from a British ship travelling from Havana to Liverpool. (Robert Bothwell, 114) This was seen as a victory for the Union, and a defeat for the South. However, it was also an infringement upon British rights to the sea. -
Confederate Raiders in Canada: The Worsening of American-Canadian Relations
Canadians were divided between pro and anti Union factions.In October 1864, a Confederate raid on St.Albans in Vermont occurred. (Robert Bothwell, 115) The raiders went to Montreal with $170,000 and were arrested. (Robert Bothwell, 115) The significance of this event is that the Canadian magistrate allowed their release without penalty. As a result, “Lincoln denounced…the Rush-Bagot Treaty of 1817, providing for the disarmament on the Great Lakes.” (Robert Bothwell, 115-116) -
President Lincoln's Reaction to Canada's Positive Treatment of Confederate Raiders
“The House of Representatives passed a resolution terminating the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854…” (Robert Bothwell, 116). Tensions between the nations heightened as Canada attempted to stabilize diplomatic relations. -
Who Were the Fenians?
A group of Irish-Americans who wanted to support Ireland in it’s fight for independence from Great Britain, and used Canada as a proxy for leverage. The intent was to exchange Canada for Ireland’s liberation. -
The Dissolution of another Ireland-based Uprising: How British Actions led to Increased Fenian Activity in the United States
“In 1865 when Britain crushed the Ireland-based independence movement, scattering its leaders.” (https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/fenian-raids/) “This situation left many Irish veterans of the American Civil War with considerable bad feelings toward Britain, and their membership in the Fenian movement quickly grew to around 10,000 men.” (https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/fenian-raids/) -
The use of Canadian & British Troops to defend Against the Fenian Attack
“Major-General George T.C. Napier, the commander of British forces in Canada West had…a total of 22,000 Canadian troops…
“…900 men from the 2nd (Queen’s Own Rifles)...under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Alfred Booker, were sent to Dunville.”
(https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/fenian-raids/) Photo Credits: Pamphlet from the Fenian Brotherhood regarding prisoners taken during the Battle of Ridgeway.
Image: Library and Archives Canada/MG26-A. -
The Battle of Ridgeway: The First Major Fenian Invasion
The largest Fenian invasion occurred in Ontario, near Fort Eerie during called the Battle of Ridgeway. “850 Fenians led by Lieutenant-Colonel John O’Neill crossed the Niagara River, establishing a bridgehead near Fort Erie.” (https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/fenian-raids/) Photo Credits: Correspondence from the Fenian Brotherhood in New York, June, 1866. Image: Library and Archives Canada/MG26-A.
LAC (https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/fenian-raids/) -
Second Fenian Invasion
One thousand Canadian officers contained a second invasion at Quebec, Montreal at Holbrook. The American response was to state the raid as illegal. Photo Credits: Fenian Raid, May 1870--Canadian Volunteers Guarding the Line near Richard's Farm. (http://collectionscanada.gc.ca) -
Significance of the Fenian Invasions for Canada
According to historian Bothwell, the significance of the invasions was that it “encouraged a sense of solidarity among Canadians”. (Robert Bothwell, 117) The United States reacted through imposing neutrality and disarmament on the Fenians. -
How The Fenian Raids Coupled with Fear of American Annexation affected Canada
During Confederation, Sir John A. McDonald was the Prime Minister of Canada. Within years of 1870, many provinces joined to form the Dominion of Canada. Historian Bothwell argues that,"these political actions, backed up by British loans, blocked the way of American would-be annexationists, but what was also needed was American...settlement of outstanding Anglo-American disputes that would put an end to opportunistic American expansionism."(Robert Bothwell, 118) -
Another Fenian Invasion at Manitoba
Another invasion by Fenian members occurred at Manitoba. The American response was to stop the raiders using their forces. The invasions reveal how vulnerable Canada was, and by contrast, the potential for absorbing Canada into America. Photo Credits: Grave of a Fenian Killed at the Battle at Richards Farm, 1870. (http://collectionscanada.gc.ca) -
How the Fenian Raids Affected Canada's Growth as a Nation
“…[The] raids revealed shortfalls in the leadership,structure and training of the Canadian militia..."
“...the threat the irregular Fenian armies posed to British North America, along with growing concerns over American military and economic might,led to increased support among British and Canadian officials towards...the formation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867.” https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/fenian-raids/ -
American Response to the Fenian Raids & How if Affected Canadian-American Relations
The United States arrested Fenians and intervened in the raids. Their prime concern was maintaining positive Anglo-American relations, and Canada served as a proxy for Britain, as it was a major colony. Canadian-American relations were plagued with fears of annexation as the American government obtained a sense of Canadian weakness in defending themselves. Therefore, the path to Confederation was an amalgamation of these factors.
