History of the Muslim World Midterm/Final

Birth of Mohammed

570

The Revelation

610

Higra to Medina

622

Death of Mohammed

632

Rightly-Guided Caliphs

Period: 632 to 661

Abu Bakr (632-34)
Umar (634-44)
Uthman (644-56)
Ali (656-61)

Islam Arrives in Egypt

639

Umayyad Dynasty

Period: 661 to 750

Initially bullied Muslims
Leading family in Mecca
Governors of Damascus under Umar

First Muslim armies reach Pakistan

700

Isolated examples of Sufi Masters

Period: 700 to 800

The Abbasid Dynasty

Period: 750 to 1258

From Mecca
Used Arab discontent to oust Umayyads
Based in Baghdad

Revolt against Abbasids in Egypt

850

Abbasid General remains and takes taxes (mid-9th century)

Turks bought and placed in Abbasid army

900

Originally from Central Asia
Mostly Shamanists and some Buddhists
Conversion begins around 12-13th century

Beginnings of Cohesive Sufi System

Period: 900 to 1100

Real power of Abbasids ends

950

Fatimid Dynasty

Period: 969 to 1171

EGYPT
First major Shiite power
Did not try to convert residents, but over-time Egypt converted from Christian to Sunni Muslim

Ghaznavids begin raiding northern India

Period: 1000 to 1190

Turks arrive in Anatolia

1071

Led by Seljuks
Moved Iran to Iraq to Syria to Anatolia

Crusades Begin

1095

Golden Age of Sufism

Period: 1100 to 1200

Ayyubid Dynasty

Period: 1171 to 1250

EGYPT
Begun by Salah al-Din Ayyub (d. 1193)
He combined Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia and put down Crusades in the region, earning the respect of Christians and Muslims
After his death, land divided amongst his relatives, who were incompetent at ruling and resulted in political chaos

Tax Codes begin to appear

1200

1st secular codes in Muslim world
Regional and relied on agriculture
Original tax collection methods often kept in conquered territories

Delhi Sultanates rule in India

Period: 1206 to 1526

Mongol conquests begin

1219

Monguls destroy Seljuks

1243

Mamluks (Bahri Period)

Period: 1250 to 1382

EGYPT
Slave army rulers
Either in army because they lost a battle and were enslaved or family needed money and sold them (common in Balkans)
Promotion potential no matter rank, so leaders were talented as warriors and politicians
Every new sultan was a slave; NO hereditary rule

Ilkhans

Period: 1256 to 1336

IRAN

Mongols invade and kill last Abbasid caliph

1258

Battle of Ayn Jalut

1260

Mongols vs. Mamluks
Mamluks become first human barrier to Mongol expansion
Legitimizes Mamluk rule
Led by Baybars

Crusades End

1291

Removed by Mamluks

Safavid Sufi Order established

1301

Founded by Safi Al-Din Al-Arabili

1st Time Ottomans are mentioned in text

1308

Ottomans take Bursa from the Byzantines

1326

Ottomans take advantage of silk industry in Bursa
Results in a more sedentary lifestyle
Ottomans begin pushing nomads to settle down

Black Death arrives in Egypt

1348

1st Capitulation of Geoese

1352

Timurlane Conquests

Period: 1370 to 1405

IRAN into West
His empire collapses 2 generations after his death

Mamluks Burji Period

Period: 1382 to 1517

Mamluks bond closely by language and ethnicity
Cairo becomes one of the largest cities in the world and known as an education (Al-Azhar University) and arts capital
So successful, Ottomans left Mamluks in control in 1517

Battle of Kosovo

1389

Ottomans win and Serbians are removed
Led by Sultan Murad I, who dies in battle
Marks the beginning of the Fratricide tradition
Youngest son, Beyazit, kills brother in battle

First reference to Janissaries

1389

Ottomans conquer all of the Balkans and Anatolia

Period: 1390 to 1400

1st reference to Devshirme

Capitulation with Venice

1400

Battle of Ankara

1402

Timur defeats Ottomans and captures the Sultan, keeping him until the Sultan dies
To create chaos, Timur returns Ottoman land to the original tribes who owned it then releases the 4 sons to compete for the Sultanate

Interregnum

Period: 1402 to 1413

4 brother battle for Ottoman sultanate
The Ghazi tradition dies
1 son allies with Byzantines, showing their political involvement
Results in the first chronicles of the Ottoman Empire

Mehmet I becomes sultan

1413

Begins tradition of making his sons governors

Murad becomes Sultan

1421

Son of Mehmet I

2nd Reference to Devshirme

1430

Murad retires

Period: 1444 to 1446

Wants to take a religious sabbatical and instates his 12 year old son Mehmet II
Mehmet II cleverly convinces father to retake throne due to growing threats from Hungarian revolts

Mehmet II becomes Sultan

1451

Son of Murad

Mehmet II takes Constantinople

1453

Spent 2 years preparing for the siege
Built 2 castles, used multiple fronts, and used heavy cannon fire
Only permitted plundering for 1 day because Mehmet wanted it to be a capital (Istanbul)
Consequences: Mehmet most prestigious ruler in the Muslim world, sometimes marks the end of the Middle Ages, complete end to Roman Empire and rulers
Evidence it contributed to development of Millet System

Portuguese begin trading in Indian Ocean

1500

Capitulations made with France, Poland, and England

1500

Emergence of Shah Ismail and Announcement of Safavid State

1501

IRAN

Safavid Expansion

Period: 1501 to 1514

Iran to Iraq to Anatolia
Beyazit II (r. 1481-1512) responds peacefully because Safavids are religious
Selim I (r. 1512-20) responds militarily

Battle of Chaldrian

1514

Ottoman victory stops Safavid expansion
Safavids embrace Shi'ism and begin discriminating against Sunnis
First major battle determined by firearms

Ottomans capture Syria and Egypt

1517

Led by Selim due to Mamluk support for the Safavids
Little trouble in Syria due to propaganda, a clear winner, and close economic ties between Syria and Anatolia
Doubles Ottoman territory overnight
More than half of the population are now Muslim
Istanbul becomes new educational and cultural capital

Suleyman the Magnificent

Period: 1520 to 1566

Reign exemplified a perfect sultan
Served as governor before being Sultan
Implemented cadastral surveys for the entire empire, created a structured education system, invested in infrastructure and architecture (like the 1 mosque per a village policy), formed an alliance with France, established Ottomans as a western player, expanded the empire (Belgrade, Island of Rhodes, Budapest)
Employed pirates to pressure Habsburgs and indirectly rule ports in Algeria

Mughals take over India

1526

Muslims begin bribing their way into the Janissaries

1550

Around the mid-15th century

1st Coffee House is Opened

1554

2 Syrian merchants open coffee house in Istanbul
Spread very quickly in 20 years
Brought lots of income to Egypt
Introduced active night-life to Ottoman society
Established public spaces to spread ideas with different religions and classes

Battle of Lepanto

1571

Coalition of European states go to Lepanto and destroy the core of the Ottoman fleet. Cervantes fights in this battle, loses a hand, then goes on to write the first European novel

Abbas I Reign

Period: 1587 to 1629

Safavid Iran
Centralized power by building a strong bureaucracy, modernizing the military, allying with the West, moving the capital from Tabriz to Isfahan (a more centralized location), investing in infrastructure and caravansaries, crushing the Kizilbash elite, and strengthening/securing Iran's borders

Jalali Revolts

Period: 1590 to 1620

Unemployed janissaries, temporary soldiers without land, and unemployed religious school graduates revolt against Ottomans demanding jobs. Early-on had little impact but became more organized until state and regional authorities had to get involved. Takes a generation to crush and many become legendary bandits

Janissaries now serve officially as police, body guards, and artillery

1600

Dutch, English, and French begin trading in Indian Ocean

1600

Capitulations made with Dutch and Habsburg

1600

Janissaries assassinate Osman II

1622

Capitulation made with Russia

1700

Last reference to Devshirme

1705

Karmanli rule of Libya

Period: 1711 to 1835

Ottomans send Ahmed Karmanli to put down a revolt and he ultimately stays and becomes governor. Outsources navy to privateers and requires Europeans to pay the Karmanli family for safe passage

Wahhabism takes off in Saudi Arabia

1745

Muhammed Ibn Abd Wahhabi begins Wahhabism because he is uncomfortable with Sufism and cults of saints. He meets Muhammed ibn Sa'ud and they make an agreement. Saudi family will implement Wahhabism while they rule in turn for ideological protection. Gradually the family expands and will take control of Mecca and Medina. Wahhabism spread rapidly with oil money after Saudi discovers in in the 20th century.

Qajar Iran

Period: 1789 to 1925

Took advantage of chaos in the Safavid empire to take control as a regional power. Imposed Shiism and there was a surge of religion in politics due to internal conflicts. The Ulama gained significant power and controlled the legal system and received money/controlled waqfs from Shiites. Resulted in Ulama becoming a rival elite class to the government

Selin III rules Turkey

Period: 1789 to 1807

Supports European-based modernization. Introduces the Nizam-i Jedid: modern army corp, increased taxation, and technical schools to train cadres. Program was defeated by opposition from the ulama and Janissaries, who deposed him

Napoleon Arrives in Egypt

1798

Wanted to cut-off British trade routes and spread ideas from the Revolution. French wanted to get ride of Napoleon. Accompanied with several hundred ships and 35-40,000 soldiers and 167 scholars (who would later establish Institut d'Egypte. Egyptians didn't really care for democracy, and although Napoleon tries to build European institutions none of it lasts.

English take-over India

1800

British and Ottomans Remove French from Egypt

1801

Napoleon wanted to take Syria, but the French soldiers were not adjusted to the climate and were getting sick. Napoleon ultimately flees and leaves behind his army, leaving them to be pushed back by the Ottomans and British

1st Barbary War

1801

Thomas Jefferson upset a significant portion of the American budget goes to the Karmanli family and sends marines and mercenaries to confront Karmnali who ultimately capture Tripoli. They return it to the Ottomans who rule until 1912

Serbian revolts

Period: 1804 to 1813

Mohammed Ali becomes governor of Egypt

1805

Mahmud II rules Ottomans

Period: 1807 to 1839

Attempts to centralize power under the absolute authority of the sultan. Sought to improve military capabilities, raise revenues, rationalize administration, subordinate provinces, and establish schools. Crushed conservative resistance. Destroys Janissaries and limits the power of the ulama by absorbing endowments, courts, and schools. Begins industrialization with factories

2nd Barbary War

1815

There's an uptick in piracy on the Algerian coast while Europeans are managing domestic conflicts due to Napoleon and Americans are dealing with War of 1812. An American ship is ultimately captured and enslaved. Americans send ships to rescue them, but ultimately a solution is negotiated

War for Greek Independence

Period: 1821 to 1829

Greeks have support from Russia. Mehmet Ali asked to lead an army and help with the revolt and in turn he can rule Egypt and Greece. Ottomans lose and Mehmet wants Syria, but Europeans threaten him until he backs off and begins instituting progressive reforms in Egypt

The Auspicious Event

1826

Sultan uses newly European trained army to shell the Janissaries' bunker and then erase all signs of the Janissaries

French invasion of Algeria

1830

Ottomans introduce a postal system

1834

Ottomans end government monopolies

1838

Hatt-i Sherif of Gulhane

1839

A declaration of principles of government, reorganized the rights of life, property, and honor, and the equality of all religious groups before the law

Tanzimat Period

Period: 1839 to 1876

Extended from military and administration to social and religious affairs in order to integrate Christians and prevent revolts.

Muhammed al-Sanusi arrives in Cyrenaica

1842

Flees Mecca in 1820's because his Sanusiyyah movement is opposed by the Wahhabs. Most of the population were Beduins at the time and he begins tradition of chapter leaders marrying local women because they themselves are missionaries. Ideology eventually drifted away from Sufism towards Salafism and impose a very severe Islam. Eventually take control fully of Cyrenaica where they receive revenue from those on Haj

The Baha'i Faith is founded in Iran

1844

Leader claims religious elite are corrupt and develops a following. Eventually he pulls away from Shiism and then Islam. Known as the the "Great Occultation." There was an emphasis on peace, gender and social equality, low taxes and small government, free trade, and spirituality. Leader was executed and the followers were split into 2. Those that arrive in Ottoman Syria form the current Baha'i faith, which is similar to other religions but not from one culture.

Ottoman and European Laws Combined

1847

Featured both Ottoman and European judges with a combination of laws

Organization of Middle Schools

1847

Rushdiye, and army tried parallel system for secondary schools. After Crimean War, MoE and army try introducing arithmetic, geography, and Ottoman history in elementary schools

Mohammed Ali dies

1849

Establishes his descendants with the name pasha and family name Khedive so even under the Ottomans they would be considered rulers

Protestant millet is formed

1850

Governed by lay members rather than clergy, a big shift

Ottoman Commercial Code

1850

Crimean War

Period: 1853 to 1856

Provoked by Russian demands for influence in Jerusalem and a protectorate over all Ottoman Christian subjects, the British, French, and Ottomans entered the Black Sea and took Sebastopol in 1855. Ended with the Treaty of Paris (1856) and Russians were forced to dismantle their naval forces on the Black Sea, but Romania became an autonomous province while Ottomans controlled their foreign policy

Ottomans introduce the telegraph

1855

Hatt-i Humayun (Imperial Rescript)

1856

Promised equality for non-Muslims and guaranteed their right to serve in the army

Ottoman Penal Code

1858

Ottoman Land Code

1858

Not based on French law, like commercial and criminal codes. Based on Islamic law. Five types of property: private (mulk), state-owned under private administration (miri), waqfs, public land under conservation (matruka), waste land (mawat). Land would become increasingly privatized

Code of Commercial Procedure

1861

Gregorian Armenians form National Assembly

1863

Code of Maritime Commerce

1863

Ismail Pasha Khedive rules Egypt

Period: 1863 to 1879

Responsible for the construction of the Suez Canal, but ultimately would harm him as he was forced to lend money from the British and French who were ultimately swindling him and allowed the British to take control of some institutions. The cash crop system and mechanization of agriculture lead to peasants losing land, resulting in revolts that would lead to the collapse of his power. The family would ceremonially rule until 1952.

Young Ottomans established

1865

Opposition to the new bureaucratic elite from the Tanzimat. Notable founding members: Names Kemal, Ibrahim Shinasi, and Ziya Pasha, all favored a constitutional regime. Focused on rights, liberties, reconciliation, and forming a constitution, wanted support of masses

Steamships and Railroads are introduced to Ottoman Empire

1866

Christians appointed to Ottoman state councils

1867

The Mecelle

1869

A new civil code that followed Islamic law but made changes on the personal authority of the sultan, employed in the state courts, and required court registration of marriages and divorces. Required European-trained jurists

Beginnings of a University

1870

Much of the program remained a paper system

Revolt of Bosnia and Herzegovinia against Ottoman Rule

1876

Part of a rise in nationalist revolts against Ottomans

Young Ottoman Coup

1876

Placed Abd al-Hamid III to power and forced him to accept a Parliament and Constitution, but he ultimately established an authoritarian and conservative regime

Reign of Abd al-Hamid II

Period: 1876 to 1908

Previous sultan committed suicide. Organizes a constitution for the Empire, which is a sign of modernity: gets rid of Millet System, establishes a Parliament, all religions are equal. Parliament gets rid of Russian protectorate over Orthodox citizens. Last Ottoman sultan actually in control

Treaty of San Stefano

1878

Ottomans were forced to concede Bulgaria, Serbia, Romania, and Montenegro and they became new states under Russian protection

Congress of Berlin

1878

Other European powers were upset by Russian gains from the Treaty of San Stefano. As compensation, Austria "temporarily" occupied Bosnia and Herzegovinia and Britain obtained Cyprus as an operations base

Urabi Revolts in Egypt

Period: 1879 to 1882

Urabi is an Egyptian officer that points how British are swindling Egypt and he ultimately will lead an uprising in the name of nationalism. The British crush the revolt and use it as an excuse to take control of Egypt.

Sanusiyyahs forced to leave Libya

1880

Outmatched by Ottomans and flee to Chad, where they meet European Christians. Would return to Libya in 1912 as a resistance group

Young Turks formed

1889

Exiled journalists, writers, publishers, and agitators in Paris for Ottoman Society for Union and Progress. Divided between Riza, who supported a strong sultan, centralized power, and strong Turkish-Muslim elements, and Prince Sabaheddin, who wanted decentralization

Abdulhamid punishes Armenians

1895

Kills 50,000 for not paying taxes by sending Kurdish troops, and 6000 people for protesting the decision

Fatherland Society is Founded

1905

Mustafa Kemal pissed Ottomans keep losing and how inefficient government is so he founds a revolutionary cell. Would later be president of Turkey

Committee for Union and Peace is formed

1907

Created by the Young Turk congress

Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovinia

1908

CUP Coup

1908

Forced sultan to return to the constitution, but ultimately resulted in an authoritarian and highly centralized government

Albania Revolts

1910

Sanusiyyah Attacks on Europeans in Algeria and Egypt

Period: 1910 to 1920

Gain reputation as Anti-Christian group but were really anti-imperial

Italian invasion of Libya

1912

Treaty of Lausanne

1912

Ottomans surrender Libya to Italy after almost a year of fighting

1st Balkan War

1912

Started over who should control Macedonia and attempts to Turkify Albanian muslims. Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro negotiate treaties with secret agreements to attack the Ottoman Empire. All remaining Ottoman territory in Europe was taken except for Istanbul. Ends in May of 1913. The rivalry between Austria and Serbia would result in WWI

Triumvirate established

1913

More centralized and efficient government, a nation-state for Turks

2nd Balkan War

1913

Balkan states capture Macedonia and Albania becomes independent, but everyone still arguing over Macedonia. Balkan states declare war on each other then Ottomans intervene. A precursor to WWI

Secularization of schools, laws, and courts

Period: 1913 to 1918

Led by CUP. Represented increasingly radicalized secularization and the rise of the Turkish identity over a religious one

Ottomans join Central Powers

1914

They didn't like Russia and Germany provided significant economic assistance

Battle of Sarikamish

1915

Ottomans are defeated badly by Russians and Armenians are blamed because some fought on the Russian side

Armenians in Van declare independence

1915

Massacre local muslim population Ottomans respond by rounding up Armenian leaders in Istanbul and sending them to Anatolia, most die. Ottomans then begin Ethnic cleansing in East Anatolia and make Armenians march to Lebanon, killing 1.5 million. Armenian children sent to Turkish families and many women convert to Islam and change identities. Sensitive subject and debated if this is a genocide

Battle of Gallipoli

Period: 1915 to 1916

Straits that connect Black Sea to Mediterranean. Germans control Ottoman army and block the Dardanelles. Try to reopen the straits from the back, but Mustafa Kemal (attaturk) disobeys Germans and helps lead a British defeat. British use the ANZAC corp as cannon fodder, setting the stage for Australian and New Zealand nationalism

The Sykes-Picot Agreement

1916

Britain and France divide up their shares of Ottoman provinces

The Balfour Declaration

1917

Britain supports the formation of a Jewish state

Family Law

1917

Replaces Islamic law completely with European

Allies defeat the Central Powers and Ottoman Empire is divided

1918

Mandates begin and Ottoman territory is divided

1920

Turkey: divided amongst powers. Kemal leads blood revolt to return Greek's portion of Anatolia, and France and Italy give back their portions in response. Kemal's reign is very secular and radical.
Syria and Lebanon: French, Ba'ath forms in Syria at WWII and Lebanon is sectarian
British: Give Iraq and Jordan to Hashemites for helping defeat Ottomans. Have Palestine but eventually return it due to conflicts

Reza Pahlavi overthrows Qajars

1921

Qajars had become corrupt from European influence. Pahlavi establishes himself as Shah and works hard to secularize the country. Ultimately gives oil rights to Americans and Europeans, resulting in a rise in nationalist opposition. Elections remove the shah until an American organized coup reinstates him

Turkey becomes an independent state

1923

Sanusiyyah kings rule Libya

Period: 1943 to 1969

Placed in power by allies then removed by Qadhafi's coup, who ends up being a horrible dictator.

British give up on Palestine

1947

Given to the League of Nations to figure out and their 2 state solution failed

Israel is established

1948

Formed by Zionist groups

Ba'ath Coup in Iraq

1958

Removes Hashemites and remain in power until 2003, when Shiite resentment allowed Saddam Hussein to take control