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Abu Bakr (632-34)
Umar (634-44)
Uthman (644-56)
Ali (656-61) -
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Initially bullied Muslims
Leading family in Mecca
Governors of Damascus under Umar -
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From Mecca
Used Arab discontent to oust Umayyads
Based in Baghdad -
Abbasid General remains and takes taxes (mid-9th century)
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Originally from Central Asia
Mostly Shamanists and some Buddhists
Conversion begins around 12-13th century -
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EGYPT
First major Shiite power
Did not try to convert residents, but over-time Egypt converted from Christian to Sunni Muslim -
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Led by Seljuks
Moved Iran to Iraq to Syria to Anatolia -
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EGYPT
Begun by Salah al-Din Ayyub (d. 1193)
He combined Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia and put down Crusades in the region, earning the respect of Christians and Muslims
After his death, land divided amongst his relatives, who were incompetent at ruling and resulted in political chaos -
1st secular codes in Muslim world
Regional and relied on agriculture
Original tax collection methods often kept in conquered territories -
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EGYPT
Slave army rulers
Either in army because they lost a battle and were enslaved or family needed money and sold them (common in Balkans)
Promotion potential no matter rank, so leaders were talented as warriors and politicians
Every new sultan was a slave; NO hereditary rule -
IRAN
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Mongols vs. Mamluks
Mamluks become first human barrier to Mongol expansion
Legitimizes Mamluk rule
Led by Baybars -
Removed by Mamluks
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Founded by Safi Al-Din Al-Arabili
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Ottomans take advantage of silk industry in Bursa
Results in a more sedentary lifestyle
Ottomans begin pushing nomads to settle down -
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IRAN into West
His empire collapses 2 generations after his death -
Mamluks bond closely by language and ethnicity
Cairo becomes one of the largest cities in the world and known as an education (Al-Azhar University) and arts capital
So successful, Ottomans left Mamluks in control in 1517 -
Ottomans win and Serbians are removed
Led by Sultan Murad I, who dies in battle
Marks the beginning of the Fratricide tradition
Youngest son, Beyazit, kills brother in battle -
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1st reference to Devshirme
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Timur defeats Ottomans and captures the Sultan, keeping him until the Sultan dies
To create chaos, Timur returns Ottoman land to the original tribes who owned it then releases the 4 sons to compete for the Sultanate -
4 brother battle for Ottoman sultanate
The Ghazi tradition dies
1 son allies with Byzantines, showing their political involvement
Results in the first chronicles of the Ottoman Empire -
Begins tradition of making his sons governors
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Son of Mehmet I
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Wants to take a religious sabbatical and instates his 12 year old son Mehmet II
Mehmet II cleverly convinces father to retake throne due to growing threats from Hungarian revolts -
Son of Murad
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Spent 2 years preparing for the siege
Built 2 castles, used multiple fronts, and used heavy cannon fire
Only permitted plundering for 1 day because Mehmet wanted it to be a capital (Istanbul)
Consequences: Mehmet most prestigious ruler in the Muslim world, sometimes marks the end of the Middle Ages, complete end to Roman Empire and rulers
Evidence it contributed to development of Millet System -
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IRAN
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Iran to Iraq to Anatolia
Beyazit II (r. 1481-1512) responds peacefully because Safavids are religious
Selim I (r. 1512-20) responds militarily -
Ottoman victory stops Safavid expansion
Safavids embrace Shi'ism and begin discriminating against Sunnis
First major battle determined by firearms -
Led by Selim due to Mamluk support for the Safavids
Little trouble in Syria due to propaganda, a clear winner, and close economic ties between Syria and Anatolia
Doubles Ottoman territory overnight
More than half of the population are now Muslim
Istanbul becomes new educational and cultural capital -
Reign exemplified a perfect sultan
Served as governor before being Sultan
Implemented cadastral surveys for the entire empire, created a structured education system, invested in infrastructure and architecture (like the 1 mosque per a village policy), formed an alliance with France, established Ottomans as a western player, expanded the empire (Belgrade, Island of Rhodes, Budapest)
Employed pirates to pressure Habsburgs and indirectly rule ports in Algeria -
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Around the mid-15th century
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2 Syrian merchants open coffee house in Istanbul
Spread very quickly in 20 years
Brought lots of income to Egypt
Introduced active night-life to Ottoman society
Established public spaces to spread ideas with different religions and classes -
Coalition of European states go to Lepanto and destroy the core of the Ottoman fleet. Cervantes fights in this battle, loses a hand, then goes on to write the first European novel
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Safavid Iran
Centralized power by building a strong bureaucracy, modernizing the military, allying with the West, moving the capital from Tabriz to Isfahan (a more centralized location), investing in infrastructure and caravansaries, crushing the Kizilbash elite, and strengthening/securing Iran's borders -
Unemployed janissaries, temporary soldiers without land, and unemployed religious school graduates revolt against Ottomans demanding jobs. Early-on had little impact but became more organized until state and regional authorities had to get involved. Takes a generation to crush and many become legendary bandits
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Ottomans send Ahmed Karmanli to put down a revolt and he ultimately stays and becomes governor. Outsources navy to privateers and requires Europeans to pay the Karmanli family for safe passage
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Muhammed Ibn Abd Wahhabi begins Wahhabism because he is uncomfortable with Sufism and cults of saints. He meets Muhammed ibn Sa'ud and they make an agreement. Saudi family will implement Wahhabism while they rule in turn for ideological protection. Gradually the family expands and will take control of Mecca and Medina. Wahhabism spread rapidly with oil money after Saudi discovers in in the 20th century.
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Took advantage of chaos in the Safavid empire to take control as a regional power. Imposed Shiism and there was a surge of religion in politics due to internal conflicts. The Ulama gained significant power and controlled the legal system and received money/controlled waqfs from Shiites. Resulted in Ulama becoming a rival elite class to the government
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Supports European-based modernization. Introduces the Nizam-i Jedid: modern army corp, increased taxation, and technical schools to train cadres. Program was defeated by opposition from the ulama and Janissaries, who deposed him
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Wanted to cut-off British trade routes and spread ideas from the Revolution. French wanted to get ride of Napoleon. Accompanied with several hundred ships and 35-40,000 soldiers and 167 scholars (who would later establish Institut d'Egypte. Egyptians didn't really care for democracy, and although Napoleon tries to build European institutions none of it lasts.
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Napoleon wanted to take Syria, but the French soldiers were not adjusted to the climate and were getting sick. Napoleon ultimately flees and leaves behind his army, leaving them to be pushed back by the Ottomans and British
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Thomas Jefferson upset a significant portion of the American budget goes to the Karmanli family and sends marines and mercenaries to confront Karmnali who ultimately capture Tripoli. They return it to the Ottomans who rule until 1912
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Attempts to centralize power under the absolute authority of the sultan. Sought to improve military capabilities, raise revenues, rationalize administration, subordinate provinces, and establish schools. Crushed conservative resistance. Destroys Janissaries and limits the power of the ulama by absorbing endowments, courts, and schools. Begins industrialization with factories
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There's an uptick in piracy on the Algerian coast while Europeans are managing domestic conflicts due to Napoleon and Americans are dealing with War of 1812. An American ship is ultimately captured and enslaved. Americans send ships to rescue them, but ultimately a solution is negotiated
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Greeks have support from Russia. Mehmet Ali asked to lead an army and help with the revolt and in turn he can rule Egypt and Greece. Ottomans lose and Mehmet wants Syria, but Europeans threaten him until he backs off and begins instituting progressive reforms in Egypt
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Sultan uses newly European trained army to shell the Janissaries' bunker and then erase all signs of the Janissaries
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A declaration of principles of government, reorganized the rights of life, property, and honor, and the equality of all religious groups before the law
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Extended from military and administration to social and religious affairs in order to integrate Christians and prevent revolts.
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Flees Mecca in 1820's because his Sanusiyyah movement is opposed by the Wahhabs. Most of the population were Beduins at the time and he begins tradition of chapter leaders marrying local women because they themselves are missionaries. Ideology eventually drifted away from Sufism towards Salafism and impose a very severe Islam. Eventually take control fully of Cyrenaica where they receive revenue from those on Haj
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Leader claims religious elite are corrupt and develops a following. Eventually he pulls away from Shiism and then Islam. Known as the the "Great Occultation." There was an emphasis on peace, gender and social equality, low taxes and small government, free trade, and spirituality. Leader was executed and the followers were split into 2. Those that arrive in Ottoman Syria form the current Baha'i faith, which is similar to other religions but not from one culture.
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Featured both Ottoman and European judges with a combination of laws
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Rushdiye, and army tried parallel system for secondary schools. After Crimean War, MoE and army try introducing arithmetic, geography, and Ottoman history in elementary schools
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Establishes his descendants with the name pasha and family name Khedive so even under the Ottomans they would be considered rulers
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Governed by lay members rather than clergy, a big shift
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Provoked by Russian demands for influence in Jerusalem and a protectorate over all Ottoman Christian subjects, the British, French, and Ottomans entered the Black Sea and took Sebastopol in 1855. Ended with the Treaty of Paris (1856) and Russians were forced to dismantle their naval forces on the Black Sea, but Romania became an autonomous province while Ottomans controlled their foreign policy
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Promised equality for non-Muslims and guaranteed their right to serve in the army
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Not based on French law, like commercial and criminal codes. Based on Islamic law. Five types of property: private (mulk), state-owned under private administration (miri), waqfs, public land under conservation (matruka), waste land (mawat). Land would become increasingly privatized
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Responsible for the construction of the Suez Canal, but ultimately would harm him as he was forced to lend money from the British and French who were ultimately swindling him and allowed the British to take control of some institutions. The cash crop system and mechanization of agriculture lead to peasants losing land, resulting in revolts that would lead to the collapse of his power. The family would ceremonially rule until 1952.
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Opposition to the new bureaucratic elite from the Tanzimat. Notable founding members: Names Kemal, Ibrahim Shinasi, and Ziya Pasha, all favored a constitutional regime. Focused on rights, liberties, reconciliation, and forming a constitution, wanted support of masses
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A new civil code that followed Islamic law but made changes on the personal authority of the sultan, employed in the state courts, and required court registration of marriages and divorces. Required European-trained jurists
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Much of the program remained a paper system
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Part of a rise in nationalist revolts against Ottomans
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Placed Abd al-Hamid III to power and forced him to accept a Parliament and Constitution, but he ultimately established an authoritarian and conservative regime
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Previous sultan committed suicide. Organizes a constitution for the Empire, which is a sign of modernity: gets rid of Millet System, establishes a Parliament, all religions are equal. Parliament gets rid of Russian protectorate over Orthodox citizens. Last Ottoman sultan actually in control
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Ottomans were forced to concede Bulgaria, Serbia, Romania, and Montenegro and they became new states under Russian protection
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Other European powers were upset by Russian gains from the Treaty of San Stefano. As compensation, Austria "temporarily" occupied Bosnia and Herzegovinia and Britain obtained Cyprus as an operations base
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Urabi is an Egyptian officer that points how British are swindling Egypt and he ultimately will lead an uprising in the name of nationalism. The British crush the revolt and use it as an excuse to take control of Egypt.
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Outmatched by Ottomans and flee to Chad, where they meet European Christians. Would return to Libya in 1912 as a resistance group
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Exiled journalists, writers, publishers, and agitators in Paris for Ottoman Society for Union and Progress. Divided between Riza, who supported a strong sultan, centralized power, and strong Turkish-Muslim elements, and Prince Sabaheddin, who wanted decentralization
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Kills 50,000 for not paying taxes by sending Kurdish troops, and 6000 people for protesting the decision
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Mustafa Kemal pissed Ottomans keep losing and how inefficient government is so he founds a revolutionary cell. Would later be president of Turkey
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Created by the Young Turk congress
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Forced sultan to return to the constitution, but ultimately resulted in an authoritarian and highly centralized government
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Gain reputation as Anti-Christian group but were really anti-imperial
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Ottomans surrender Libya to Italy after almost a year of fighting
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Started over who should control Macedonia and attempts to Turkify Albanian muslims. Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro negotiate treaties with secret agreements to attack the Ottoman Empire. All remaining Ottoman territory in Europe was taken except for Istanbul. Ends in May of 1913. The rivalry between Austria and Serbia would result in WWI
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More centralized and efficient government, a nation-state for Turks
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Balkan states capture Macedonia and Albania becomes independent, but everyone still arguing over Macedonia. Balkan states declare war on each other then Ottomans intervene. A precursor to WWI
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Led by CUP. Represented increasingly radicalized secularization and the rise of the Turkish identity over a religious one
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They didn't like Russia and Germany provided significant economic assistance
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Ottomans are defeated badly by Russians and Armenians are blamed because some fought on the Russian side
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Massacre local muslim population Ottomans respond by rounding up Armenian leaders in Istanbul and sending them to Anatolia, most die. Ottomans then begin Ethnic cleansing in East Anatolia and make Armenians march to Lebanon, killing 1.5 million. Armenian children sent to Turkish families and many women convert to Islam and change identities. Sensitive subject and debated if this is a genocide
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Straits that connect Black Sea to Mediterranean. Germans control Ottoman army and block the Dardanelles. Try to reopen the straits from the back, but Mustafa Kemal (attaturk) disobeys Germans and helps lead a British defeat. British use the ANZAC corp as cannon fodder, setting the stage for Australian and New Zealand nationalism
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Britain and France divide up their shares of Ottoman provinces
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Britain supports the formation of a Jewish state
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Replaces Islamic law completely with European
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Turkey: divided amongst powers. Kemal leads blood revolt to return Greek's portion of Anatolia, and France and Italy give back their portions in response. Kemal's reign is very secular and radical.
Syria and Lebanon: French, Ba'ath forms in Syria at WWII and Lebanon is sectarian
British: Give Iraq and Jordan to Hashemites for helping defeat Ottomans. Have Palestine but eventually return it due to conflicts -
Qajars had become corrupt from European influence. Pahlavi establishes himself as Shah and works hard to secularize the country. Ultimately gives oil rights to Americans and Europeans, resulting in a rise in nationalist opposition. Elections remove the shah until an American organized coup reinstates him
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Placed in power by allies then removed by Qadhafi's coup, who ends up being a horrible dictator.
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Given to the League of Nations to figure out and their 2 state solution failed
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Formed by Zionist groups
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Removes Hashemites and remain in power until 2003, when Shiite resentment allowed Saddam Hussein to take control