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The Umayyads came to power and elected Mu’awiya as the fifth caliph after the death of Mohammed’s son-in-law and cousin, Ali. Mu'awiya moved his capital to Damascus and began to reform the
new empire’s administration. Mu’awiya modeled his government’s organization on that of the Byzantine Empire. -
As Hussein, grandson of Prophet Mohammed traveled with his family and entourage toward the Iraqi city of Kufa, Yazid’s troops stopped the travelers and demanded that Hussein takes an oath of loyalty to Yazid and the Umayyad Dynasty. When Hussein refused to submit, Yazid’s general ordered his soldiers to attack, slaughtering women and children as well as Hussein. This event has changed the course of Islamic history and became a symbol of sectarian division in Islam.
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The Dome of the Rock, with its distinctive
golden dome and beautiful calligraphy, was constructed in Jerusalem. -
Yazid’s son, Abd al-Malik, transformed Muslim lands into a unified empire. Abd al-Malik spread administrative reforms across North Africa, and Persia made Arabic the common language, constructed mosques in all new territories, and unified the coinage of the empire. He also ended the practice of featuring the ruler’s image on coins, and instead used only text, notably verses from the Qu’ran.
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The Umayyad expansion into Europe was stopped in the west by Charles Martel and his Frankish forces at the Battle of Tours. The Umayyads were defeated and forced back south. From this point forward, Islamic control was mostly limited to the Iberian Peninsula south of the Pyrenees Mountain.
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Umayyad dominance in eastern Iran was challenged by a rising faction, the Abbasids, who joined others opposing the empire’s secular emphasis. The Abbasids brought down the Umayyads and sought to kill as many Umayyad family members as possible to avoid its later resurgence.
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Abbasid expansion brought them in conflict with the Chinese at the Battle of Talas. The Muslim army was victorious, and through Chinese captives, learned about paper, which would replace papyrus and parchment, making Abbasid intellectual achievements easier to spread.
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Abd al-Rahman was the lone survivor of the Umayyad dynasty after the Abbasids murdered his extended family. He made his way to Spain within five years, mustered support of the Umayyad governors and generals still in the region, and established a capital in the
city of Cordoba. -
The Abbasids moved the capital to Baghdad, although the leaders were Arab, administrators and cultural influence were primarily Persian. The shift allowed some independent dynasties to form in the west, such as the Spanish Umayyad and later the Egyptian Fatimids
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Abd al-Rahman began the construction of the Great Mosque of Cordoba began. This mosque, known in Spanish as La Mezquita, would become the architectural centerpiece of the capital, and of the kingdom. One of the building’s most distinctive features is the prayer hall. Its high ceiling is supported by a forest of columns and arcades, decorated in red and white.
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Under Abbasid rule were a golden age of Muslim achievement. In the recently built capital of Baghdad, the caliphs founded centers of study, including the Beyt al-Hikma, or House of Wisdom. Most historians attribute this to Al-Ma’mun,but some give credit to earlier caliphs.
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Al-Khwarizmi died. He adapted Hindu numerals and developed the numbering system we use today. He is considered the father of algebra. His works were translated into Latin in the 12th century and formed the basis of Western mathematics. Scholars translated ancient Persian, Hindu, and Greek texts into Arabic and then spread that knowledge across the vast Muslim lands, as far west as Spain. These texts helped Europeans become acquainted with the Greek thinkers, such as Aristotle.
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Abd al-Rahman took advantage of religious
conflict in the Middle East and named himself caliph, a title of both religious and political authority. He asserted Umayyad power in North Africa against an Egyptian dynasty called the Fatimids. -
Ibn Sina, known as Avicenna, wrote the Canon of Medicine , an encyclopedia describing diseases and treatments that were far ahead of any medical work done in Europe.
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The Umayyads were ultimately replaced by a succession of other Muslim dynasties in Spain.
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Seljuq Turks who had gradually moved into Abbasid territory took control of Baghdad. Their leader, Tugrul Bey, forced the Abbasid caliph to name him sultan. From that point, the empire was ruled in name by the Abbasids, but in practice by the Seljuq.
The Seljuq expanded westward, defeating the Byzantines in Turkey and even taking control of Jerusalem. -
The Seljuq expanded, defeating the Byzantines in Turkey and even taking control of Jerusalem. These challenges to Christian rule led the pope to call the first crusade. Christian knights seized and held Jerusalem until 1187 when the city was retaken by the great Muslim general, Saladin. Europeans maintained a presence in the region until the Crusades ended in 1204.
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The Christian Kingdoms were united in their desire to drive the Muslims out of Spain once and for all and the Almohads proved to be no match for them in the long run. The turning point in the reconquista was the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, which saw a combined army of Castile, Aragon, and Navarre, along with volunteers from Leon and France, defeat the Almohads. Shortly after Valencia, Cordoba, Seville, and the Balearic Islands all fell to the Christians.
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The Mongol invasion reached Mesopotamia. The conquerors destroyed the city of Baghdad, burning its palaces and its houses of learning. Although the Mongols would eventually convert to Islam and foster their cultural achievements, the golden age of the Abbasid dynasty had come to a close.
