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Period: 1509 to 1533
Catherine of Aragon
Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536) is Henry VIII's first wife. She gives birth to Mary I.
She is the daughter of the very powerful spanish catholic king Ferdinand II of Aragon. Henry and Catherine share the same catholic faith. This marriage means a very powerful diplomatic alliance between Spain, England and papacy. -
Period: 1509 to 1547
Henry VIII's reign
Henry VIII (1491-1547) is a staunch catholic :
- He went at least three times on pilgrimages
- He wrote an anti-Luther theological book in the 1520s He is also a boastful king :
- Run many costly wars against France
- Governs through his Privy Council
- He is close to Cardinal Wosley, who has a huge power and is close to the pope. -
Period: 1533 to 1536
Anne Boleyn
Anne Boleyn (around 1500-1536) is Henry VIII's wife. She gives birth to Elizabeth I.
She is very influential thanks to her special relation with the king. She is sensible to the ideas of the Reformation/Humanist critics of church abuses. For instance, she helped at the rise of Thomas Cranmer : he will be nominated archbishop of Canterbury in 1532 and will be an important artisan of the establisment of a partly reformed Church of England. -
1534
Act of Supremacy
The king is made « Supreme Head of the Church of England ». -
Period: 1536 to 1537
Jane Seymour
Jane Seymour (around 1500-1537) is Henry VIII's wife. She gives birth to Edward VI. -
1537
English Bible
In 1537 : production of an English bible which is made mandater in every churches. -
Period: 1547 to 1553
Edward VI's reign
Edward VI (1537-1553), son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour
At 9 years-old,Edward Seymour's father dies.
He becomes Lord Protector.
He is Protestant.
During his reign, he tries to make the Church of England more Protestant. -
1549
The Book of Common Prayer
The creation of the Book of Common Prayer replaces every latin mass books in every churches. It eventually leads to some rebellions in Cornwall and Devon – the lines between economical, political and religious reasons is hard to draw. -
Period: 1553 to 1558
Mary I's reign and the Catholic Restoration
Mary I (1516-1558), daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon
Mary I, also called Mary Tudor, byname Bloody Mary, is the first queen to rule England in her own right.
She is married to Philip II of Spain.
She is known as Bloody Mary for her persecution of Protestants because protantism is made an heresy. Protestants are forced to leave the country and flee to the Continent : the Marian exiles.
She wants to restore Roman Catholicism and make and alliance with the Habsburgs empire. -
1557
A war against France
Mary engages England, allied with Spain, in a war against France. Calais is lost. This event will affect her popularity. -
Period: 1558 to
Elizabeth I's reign
Elizabeth I or the Virgin Queen (1533-1603), daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn
She is unmarried and Protestant
The country is in a disastrous diplomatic situation (tensions with Spain, France, Scotland and Ireland) and is bankrupt with many social issues (enclosures, bad harvests).
She establishes a new form of faith/church structure.
She forges strong alliances with the Netherlands and France against Spain. England becomes home to many exiled protestants. -
1559
New Act of Supremacy
After Mary’s reign, Elizabeth I reaffirmes the authority of the Queen over the Church. She becomes “Supreme Governor of the Church of England”. -
1559
Act of Uniformity
Every parish have to use the Book of common prayer, and people who do not attend an Anglican service are fined. -
Period: 1559 to 1563
New Church of England
This new Church of England, the Anglican Church, is a compromise. It retains some catholic features (episcopal structures, priestly clothes) and adopts protestant ideas (no cult of saints or Virgin Mary). But some are still discontent with this compromise. On one side the catholics (many from the artistocracy) and on the other side, the puritans : radical protestants. -
1568
Mary Queen of Scots
Mary Stuart (1542-1587) is the next heir in line. She is the daughter of James V King of Scotland and Mary of Guise : a catholic family who was leading the counter-reformation in France.
She is a widow of the French King Francis II.
And in 1568, during the civil war in Scotland, she has to flee to England, where she is imprisoned for 19 years. -
1569
The Northern Rebllion
The Earls of Westmorland and Northumberland and 6000 insurgents rebelle in order to replace Elizabeth I by Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots (Catholic and next heir in line). The rebellion is crushed. -
1570
Excommunication of Elizabeth I
While the Pope Pius V supports Mary, Queen of Scots, he excommunicates Elizabeth I.
The Anglican “compromise” begins to look less like a compromise between Catholicism and Protestantism than a form of state-endorsed protestantism. Elizabeth, who is already excommunicate, leads an important repression of Catholics. -
Execution of Mary Queen of Scots
When Elizabeth I becomes Queen, she decides to emprison Mary Stuart. But few years later, she orders to execute Mary because of her many treasons. -
Defeat of Spain
The King of Spain Philipp II sends the Spanish Armada to invade Britain. Due to weather conditions and a good naval strategy, the “invincible” armada is defeated. Huge victory, at a symbolic and diplomatic level. -
Period: to
James I's reign
James I is Mary, Queen of Scots' son and succeeds to Elizabeth I in 1603.
James combined his title in England with his stature as King James VI of Scotland since 1567. He ruled over Three Kingdoms (since England had also installed a parliament and government in Ireland).
Very educated, raised as a Protestant in Scotland, he was also a firm believer in the divine right of king, which he even theorised in his book Basilikon Doron, published in 1599. -
Truce between England end Spain
In 1604, James I signed a peace treaty with Spain.
Thus he temporarily helped to ameliorate the finances.
However, it collapsed because of the fail wedding -
Gunpowder Plot
Early November 1605, a group of conspirator planned to put some explosives under the parliament and kill James I. Only three hours before the king’s arrival, the plot was discovered : Guy Fawkes was preparing the explosives.
This further alienated the catholic cause to the public opinion and condemned all possible toleration policies. -
Conflict between the King and the Parliament
In 1610, the Great Contract between King and Parliament stipulated that the King received a fixed sum for his annual expenses. The Crown was recognized as a proper administration, but some feared that this will collide with the Parliament prominence on taxation and military expenses. The House of Common refused to vote for it, and the King responded by dissolution of the Parliament. -
Period: to
Charles I's reign
Son of James I, Charles was an absolutist. He interpreted all criticism as a challenge to his authority.
He married the French, absolutist and Catholic princess Henrietta Maria.
He embraced a particular form of Anglican faith : Arminianism. They seek to restore some rituals and strong episcopacy within protestantism : seen by their enemies as proto-catholics.
Also an amateur of the arts, he invited many painters at his court and embraced an ambitious cultural program… at a huge cost ! -
Period: to
The Eleven Years of Tyranny
From 1629 to 1640, Charles will rule without Parliament. This period is called “The Eleven Years Tyranny”.
Under the personal rule, Charles will impose Arminian uniformity over the Church of England.
Sign of the cross, bowing at the name of Jesus, and strict uniformity were imposed.
The notion of uniformity led to even greater resentment in Scotland and Ireland. -
The Book of Common Prayer
In Scotland, the attempt to enforce uniformity went through the imposition of the Book of Common Prayer / New Prayer Book in 1637. A special mass was celebrated in St Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh to introduce the Book of Common Prayer. Some Scottish attendants welcomed the sermon with particular care : they threw a stool at the bishop !
This event was the starting point of the Bishop Wars, opposing the covenanters defenders of Scottish Presbyterian independence and royal troops. -
Reconstitution of the Parliament
After the Scots covenanters invaded England. The peace treaty of Ripon was signed in October 1640 (England had to pay Scottish army treats). Charles I, in a catastrophic financial and political situation, had to reconstitute the Parliament. This one will stand until 1660 : the long parliament.
Two acts passed:
- Parliament should meet at least every 3 years.
- The dissolution of Parliament required its consent -
the Grand Remonstrance
After some heated debates opposing John Pym’s partisans and more conservative MPs, this radical text was adopted :
- The House of Common’s right to choose King’s ministers.
- Parliament’s right to control an army
- Parliament’s right to reform the church
The Parliament is now divided in two factions : the Parliamentarians and the Royalists. Among the Among the Royalists, many were more likely to support the King than King Charles.
Anyway, it divided the country in two great factions ! -
The Irish Rebellion
In October 1641, a Civil War broke out in Ireland: The Irish Rebellion, which led to the acceleration toward the Civil War. The plantations (a policy in Ireland which led to the Flight of the Earls in 1607) were enforced even more brutally under Charles I.
This Irish riot led to the massacre of 3000/4000 Protestants.
many rumours are circulating, the number of victims is said to be of more than 200 000 Protestants. The Parliament rose an army under its control and passed the Militia Act. -
Beginning of the Civil War
After arresting 5 MPs, Charles then flew from London to York. The Parliament went further presenting the 19 propositions to the King : close to a constitutional monarchy. Then, in August 1642, Charles formally declared war on Parliament. The Civil War has now officially started ! -
Period: to
The Civil War
The first Civil War will oppose the Cavaliers (Royalists) and the Roundheads (Parlementarians). It will cost the lives of 190 000 Englishmens from combats and diseases spread by the troops.
The Cavaliers were supporters of the King, his special right on taxation, and his rule over questions of religion.
The Roundheads were supporters of Parliament : it should craft laws, and give its consent for every taxes. Most were critics of Laud’s reforms but they were not uniformly radical Puritans. -
The Battles of Naseby
In June 1645, at the Battle of Naseby, the Roundheads and their New Model Army backed by the Scots won a decisive battle. It established their superiority over royalists’ forces. -
Surrender of the King to the Scots
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The King is put on trial
In December 1648, the Army’s Colonel Pride entered the Parliament to arrest 45 conservative MPs : the Pride’s Purge that led to the formation of the very radical and quite reduced Rump Parliament, that put the King on trial for high treason. -
Period: to
The Seconde Civil War
After being seized by the NMA in June 1647, the King escaped in November 1647 and forged an alliance with the Scots promising the installation of Presbyterianism over England : this led to the Second Civil War (January-Autumn 1648).
The Royalists revolts were easily defeated by Cromwell’s forces.
The Army wanted the King to be put on trial, the conservatives to negotiate with him. -
Second Irish Rebellion
Another Irish Rebellion broke out and Cromwell’s army represses and installs a severe repression towards Catholics.
This leads to the massacre of both soldiers and civilian at Drogheda and Wexford. It is sort of a spirit of revenge from the 1641 Irish Rebellion.
Catholicism is forbidden, Irish priests are arrested and Irish Catholic’s land are confiscated. -
Charles I's execution
On the 30 of January of 1649, the King Charles I is exécute.
Monarchy and the House of Lords is abolished and England is declared a Commonwealth -
Period: to
Olivier Cromwell's reign
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Creation of the Proctectorate
On the 20th of April 1653, Cromwell dissolved the Rump Parliament. The Barebones Parliament will follow, but without much success. The 16th of December 1653, it was dissolved which will provoke the end of the Commonwealth and the start of the Protectorate.
It is a military dictatorship. Cromwell refused to be entitled “King” but effectively ruled as a monarch with the title of Lord Protector. -
Period: to
War against Spain
A successful war started against Spain that anchored English presence in the West Indies (conquest of Jamaica). -
Death of Cromwell
Cromwell died in 1658, his son Richard became Lord Protector, but had to resign soon in face of increasing political tensions.
There is an increasing popular demand for the return of the King. -
Déclaration of Breda
Charles II, on exile in the Dutch republics, published the Declaration of Breda in 1660.
Amnesty, religious toleration and acknowledgment of Parliament power if monarchy is restored. -
Period: to
Charles II's reign
During Charles II reign, important conflicts erupted between the King and Parliament over questions of religion. The Parliament defended a restoration of the Church of England. They voted the Clarendon Code during the first 5 years of Charles II’s reign : very repressive against dissenters/non-conformists.
On the other side, since the Declaration of Breda, Charles II positioned himself as a defender of toleration for all (more for the Catholics). He has a strong relation with Louis XIV. -
Act of Uniformity
Charles II imposes again the Book of Common Prayer. -
The Popish Plot
The Popish Plot is the set up of rumours of a plot organised by the French to assassinate Charles II and to put his catholic brother on the throne. The Parliament decided to execute 35 people. -
Period: to
The Exclusion Crisis
The Parliament tried to debar James from succession. Charles reaction was to dissolve Parliament. He ruled without it until his death in 1685 (he converted to Catholicism on his deathbed). He was succeeded by his brother.
It led to the polarization of the Parliament in two parties : the Whigs, that opposed James, and the Tories, that were loyal to the doctrine of royal hereditary rights. -
Period: to
James II's reign
The first years of James II’s reign were quite peaceful. He tried to work toward toleration for both Catholics and dissenters, facing Parliament opposition on this issue. But he was old, and had no male heir.
However, his second wife, Mary of Modena, gave him a son, James Francis Edward in 1688.
It instaurer a panic within the Parliament (fear of the installation of a Catholic restoration and of monarchal absolutism), from both Tories and Whigs. -
Period: to
William III (and Mary II)'s reign
The Immortal Seven, 7 English noblemen, invited William of Orange to invade England.
With about 20000 soldiers, William lands in England in the early November of 1688. He will meet no resistance.
James II fled to France. Williams invited to take the throne and became King William III.
The Glorious Revolution reinstalled a protestant monarch. England became a Constitutional Monarchy, framed by the 1689 Bill of Right. -
Toleration Act
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Bill of Right
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The War of Spanish Succession
After Spain’s King Charles II died childless in 1700, France wanted to put the Bourbon heir Philip of Anjou on the throne, while the Habsburgs wanted to place Charles of Austria. William and then Anne sided with the Habsburgs. It led to the Peace of Utrecht (1713-1715), Philip became as King of Spain, but had to renounce to his right to inherit the French throne. Placed England / United Kingdom as the most powerful and rich state in the world. -
Act of Settlement
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Period: to
Anne's reign
Anne is James II's granddaughter. -
Act of Union between England and Scotland
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Period: to
George I's reign
The first Hanover King, George I, wasn’t as implicated in internal politics as his predecessors : he was German, did not spoke any good English, and was mostly concerned by the threats (France/Habsburgs/Prussia) to the little palatine state of Hanover.
So he decided to give most of his power to Parliament. This led to an important party war between the Whigs and the Tories. Under George I and II, the Whigs ruled Britain. -
The First Rebellion
The first rebellion sought to install the “old pretender”, James Francis Edward Stuart (1688-1766), the one whom its birth led to the Glorious Revolution. -
Period: to
George II's reign
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The Second Rebellion
The second rebellion was to install the “young pretender”, Charles Edward Stuart (1720-88), “Bonnie Prince Charlie". It led to the final Jacobites’ defeat at the Battle of Culloden (1746). -
Period: to
The Seven Years War
The Seven Years War (1754-63) opposed a French coalition to the English, mostly over questions of colonial and naval control. The Treaty of Paris of 1763 made Britain victorious. The Whigs led by William Pit the Elder raised much money to fund the war, mostly through taxation, even in the colonies. -
Period: to
George III's reign
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Period: to
The American Revolutionary War
The Boston Tea Party of 1773 paved the way for the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783). Interestingly, the revolutionaries invoked the rights of the freeborn Englishmen !
In 1783, Britain recognized the independence of the United States through the Treaty of Paris. -
Foundation of the London Stock-Exchange
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Acts of Union
The United Kingdom of Great Britain, and Ireland is created.