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Patricians and Plebians struggled for equality against the governent.
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• Hannibal
• Crosses the Alps
• Battle of Cannae, 216 bce
• Roman army lost >60,000 soldiers.
• Largest force Rome had deployed up to that time.
• Threatens Rome
• Hannibal defeated at the Battle of Zama, 202 bce, by Scipio Africanus. -
• Huge debt
• Roman approval in foreign affairs.
• Cato, the Elder
• “Carthago delenda est!”
• Carthage was destroyed – leveled and the ground sewn with salt! -
• Rome’s finest orator.
• Great statesman.
• More than 800 surviving speeches and letters provide insight into politics.
• Models of classical rhetoric and oratory.
• Sought to avoid one-man rule and preserve the Republic.
• Advocated Stoic philosophy.
• Belief in Natural Law that applied to all.
• Self-sufficiency.
• Virtuous conduct.
• Adherence to duty.
• Major influence on Founding Fathers of United States. -
• Dictator for 10 years.
• Provincial Reforms
• Lowered taxes among the provinces.
• Made provincial governors responsible to him.
• Extended citizenship
• Public works program.
• Relocated unemployed veterans to provinces where they received land, thereby
reducing Rome’s poor and unemployed.
• Reorganized urban government.
• Reformed the courts.
• Created a new calendar.
• Treated former enemies within the Senate with moderation, respect and
generosity. -
• The Aeneid
• Long, epic poem describing the founding of Rome.
• National epic expressing Roman virtues.
• Patriotism
• Devotion to family
• Duty to the state
• Strong sense of religion -
Ceasar is assassinated
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Octavian becomes first emperor of Rome, Caesar Augustus.
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politically shrewd
• Military monarchy with the façade of Republican institutions.
o Senate still appeared to administer some provinces and advised Octavian.
• By retaining the appearance of the Republic, Octavian avoided opposition and
resistance.
• offered to surrender all power, knowing the Senate would demand that he continue to lead.
• He retain absolute power but was careful to appear as a monarch. He refused
the title of king or dictator. -
• Jesus lived within this context of Jewish expectations and
longings. The hopes of Jesus’ early followers encompassed:
• A lower-class dissatisfaction with the aristocratic Sadducees
• A Pharisee emphasis on prophetic ideals and afterlife.
• An Essene preoccupation with the end of days, the nearness of God, and the
need for repentance.
• A conquered people’s yearning for a Messiah who would liberate their land from
Roman rule and restore God’s rule. -
The “Time of Happiness”
• Peace
• Security
• Ordered civilization
• Rule of law.
• Constructive Rule
• Improved conditions for both slaves and women
o Slaves were about 25% of population at the time of Augustus.
o Declined due to few wars of conquest.
o Manumission
• Nobles freed slaves and set them up in business in exchange for a share of the
enterprise.
• Freed slaves bore no social stigma.
o Legal protection of slaves steadily improved. -
• Prosperous merchant in Mecca.
• When Muhammad was about forty, he believed he was visited in his sleep
by the angel Gabriel.
• Muhammad chosen as a prophet. -
• Son of Pepin, Grandson of Charles Martel.
• Expanded Frankish kingdom.
• Primitive administration
• Divided the empire into about 250 counties, each administered by a comites, a count, a noble personally loyal to the ruler.
• Comites served as judges, generals, administrators.
• Connected the Emperor with the Roman Church
• Suggested that Pope was superior to the Emperor.
• Carolingian Empire was only a shadow of the Roman Empire.
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Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as Emperor of the Romans.
• Signaled a continuation of the Roman Empire (or the Western Roman Empire).
• Connected the Emperor with the Roman Church
• Suggested that Pope was superior to the Emperor