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1300
The Renaissance
The Renaissance was a period of innovation in culture, art, and learning that took place between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, starting in Italy and then spreading to other parts of Europe. It produced a number of artists, scientists, and thinkers who are still household names today. The Renaissance is justly famous for its achievements in art and learning. -
1455
The Printing Press
In 1455, a German named Johannes Gutenberg made his invention of the printing press available for purchase. The first true printed book to reach a mass market would be the Bible. Print would spread quickly and become crucial to the diffusion of information. -
1492
Christopher Columbus
The most important voyages of discovery of the early modern period were undertaken by agents of the Spanish monarchy, starting with that of Christopher Columbus in 1492. The trade between the two hemispheres began as a result of Columbus and is now known as the Columbian Exchange. From the Americas, Europeans brought back corn, potatoes, tobacco, chocolate, and tomatoes, and the Europeans brought horses, cows, goats, pigs, and sheep and crops like rice, wheat, sugarcane, and coffee to America. -
1517
Martin Luther
Martin Luther was a German monk who challenged the Catholic Church. Luther strongly disliked the idea of purchasing indulgences to receive one's salvation and posted a list of ninety-five attacks against indulgences to the door of the Wittenberg cathedral. These "95 Theses" are considered to be the first official act of the Protestant Reformation. Luther also challenged the Catholic Church by saying that the Bible and God have the real authority and power in the Church and not the pope. -
1519
Hernan Cortes
The most significant conquistador was Hernan Cortes. Cortes proved brilliant at manipulating the native groups he encountered in Mexico, where he arrived in 1519. Working through a native translator, who had already learned Spanish, Cortes was able to convince native groups resentful of the Aztecs to fight alongside the Spanish. Cortes was able to achieve the surrender of the surviving Aztec forces by 1522 and founded the Spanish colony of New Spain in the center of Mexico. -
1534
The English Reformation
The English Reformation happened because of the selfish desires of a king rather than from protests against the Catholic Church. In 1534, as papal threats escalated over Henry's defiance of the pope, Henry issued the Acts of Supremacy and Succession, effectively separating England from the Catholic Church and founding in its stead the Church of England. The end result of the English Reformation was that England and Scotland were divided between competing Christian factions. -
1536
Jean Calvin
The most important Protestant denomination to emerge after the establishment of Lutheranism was Calvinism. Calvin accepted Luther’s insistence on the role of faith in salvation, but he went further. He concluded that God, who transcended both time and space, chose some people as the “elect,” those who will be saved before they are even born. While Lutheranism spread to northern Germany and the Scandinavian countries, Calvinism caught on in Switzerland, France, and Scotland. -
1540
The Catholic Reformation
The Catholic Reformation happened in response to the Protestant Reformation, a sort of "Counter-Reformation." Because of Lutheranism and his 95 Theses, large numbers of people within the Church also spoke out about their desire for significant changes. Thus, while the Catholic Reformation began as a reaction against Protestantism, it culminated in reforming the Church itself. -
1545
The Council of Trent
The Council of Trent was an ongoing series of meetings overseen by popes. Church officials would debate all of the charges that had been leveled against the Church (the sale of indulgences, the importance of good works in salvation, the spiritual necessity of the sacraments). While it was initially organized to try to reconcile with Protestantism, the Council reaffirmed almost all of the controversial parts of church doctrine although they did propose that priests must be formally trained. -
The Thirty Years' War
Leading up to the outbreak of war, there was an uneasy truce between the Catholic emperor, who had limited power outside of his own (Habsburg) ancestral lands, and the numerous Protestant princes in their respective, mostly northern, territories. Attacks and counter-attacks ensued, ultimately pitting the Catholic Habsburgs against the German Protestant princes. Supported by Catholic princes, the Habsburgs led a Catholic League while a German Calvinist prince led the Protestant League.