Cultura y Civilización Inglesas 2018

Introduction

4450 BCE

The first part of this timeline introduces definitions of 'culture', 'hybridity' & 'history'; these are located in random years, ie. their position in the timeline is unrelated to these years & the entries are merely intended as an introduction.

Concept of Culture II (Geertz)

4350 BCE

Ordered SYSTEM of MEANINGS & SYMBOLS in terms of which social interaction takes place. FRAMEWORK of BELIEFS, expressive symbols and VALUES in terms of which individuals define their world, express their feelings and make their judgements. "ENSEMBLE of TEXTS which the anthropologist strains to read over the shoulders of those to whom they properly belong (...) Man (sic) is an animal suspended in WEBS OF SIGNIFICANCE which anthropologists analyse and interpret in search of meaning". (Geertz)

Concept of Culture III (Grimson)

4300 BCE

Culture is NOT A MERE ANNEXATION or an interesting sphere to a total social progress but instead, a WEB, where DISPUTES and CONFLICTS take place about INEQUALITIES, LEGITIMACIES and possibilities of TRANSFORMATION. Eg. Culture doesn't exist separated from economy.

History / history / HISTORIES (Burke)

4200 BCE

Traditionally, this field of study is the History from above telling about "great personalities", prioritizing the narration of events whose source is in chronicles and official documents. In the rendering of the historical events, objectivity is sought after, yet this is virtually impossible.
'New History' (Peter Burke) takes into account long-term social and economic changes, a VARIETY OF SOURCES, HETEROGLOSSIA (diff varieties within the same code; related to POLYPHONY) & INTERDISCIPLINARITY.

The concept of Hybridity I (Bhabha)

4150 BCE

Cultural Identity emerges out of a CONTRADICTORY & AMBIVALENT SPACE OF ENUNCIATION. Thus, any claim to the purity of that space of enunciation is no longer tenable. This notion emerges from the context of COLONIALISM & NEOCOLONIALISM and the diff empires. Therefore, hybridity refers to the creation of TRANSCULTURAL FORMS within the CONTACT ZONE produced by colonialism, where cultures MEET and sometimes CLASH.

The concept of Hybridity II (Bhabha)

4100 BCE

This approach works towards DEMYTHOLOGISING the notion of THE OTHER as exotic/totally diff, because in this contact zone we EXCHANGE.

Culture vs Civilization (Young)

4100 BCE

Whereas 'Culture' is a more ANTHROPOLOGICAL & RELATIVIST notion referring to the 'COMPLEX WHOLE' of any individual society's MATERIAL & IDEATIONAL SYSTEM (Young), 'Civilization' merges human achievements with unspeakable crimes, as it is a LINEAR, HIERARCHICAL, PROGRESSIVIST notion of EUROCENTRIC DEVELOPMENT & EVOLUTION. It has to do with the IDEOLOGICAL PROCESS of IMPERIALISM.

A heroic origin myth: Brut landed in Albion

4000 BCE

This foundational myth was set in the mysterious centuries before the Romans came into the isles: the Trojan hero Brutus landed in Albion, which was uninhabited except for a few giants. Brutus renamed the island "Brutaigne," or Britain, after himself. This story emulates that of the Franks, and indeed, the Romans themselves, who also claimed Trojan descent. It was later elaborated for the British by a prestigious and exciting European lineage (?).

Prehistory in the British Isles

Period: 4000 BCE to 43

Around 4000 BC the island was populated by people with a Neolithic culture. However, no written language of the pre-Roman inhabitants of Britain has survived; therefore, the history, culture and way of life of pre-Roman Britain are known mainly through archaeological finds. The main evidence for the period is archaeological; available genetic evidence is increasing. Toponyms and the like constitute a small amount of linguistic evidence, from river and hill names

British geography & 1st evidence of human life

3900 BCE

B*'s history has been connected with and shaped by the sea; the territory has been saved from danger by it. B* has not always been an island: only after the end of the last Ice Age. The first evidence of human life is a few stone tools, dating from 250000 BC. Ar 50000 BC the ancestors of the modern British arrived. Ar 10000 BC B* was peopled by a group of hunters, gatherers, and fishers. By 5000 BC, B* became a heavily forested island with fewer animals and a critical phase for the inhabitants.

Skara Brae

3180 BCE

Located in Orkney Islands (Scotland), and popularly called "The Scottish Pompeii", it is an archeological site which is helpful to understand how the first communities lived in the area during the Stone Age. Consisting of eight clustered houses, it was occupied from roughly 3,180 BC to about 2,500 BC. Being Europe's most complete Neolithic village, it was declared UNESCO’s World Heritage Site.

Stonehenge (built 3000 - 2000 BC; central til 1300 BC)

3000 BCE

The most powerful prehistoric monument of B*; its purpose: a mystery; aligned with the Sun movement. Built in separate stages between the 3000 & 2000 BC (Bronze Age) Stonehenge was the most important centre of religious, political & economic power in the region. This was one of several henges built in the area. Those who built it knew how to cut & move large pieces of stone and had the authority to control large numbers of workers. The site was recognised probably over the whole of the B* Isles.

Inhabitants in the Neolithic

3000 BCE

About 3000 BC, Neolithic / New Stone Age, people crossed the narrow sea from Europe. They kept animals and grew corn crops. These were the first of several waves of invaders before the Romans in 55 BC. The GREAT "PUBLIC WORKS" of this time tell us a little of how prehistoric B* developed. The earlier of these were great "BARROWS" or burial mounds, made of stone or earth. Most are found on the chalk uplands of south B*, which were then airy woodlands that could easily be cleared for farming.

West Kennet Long Barrow

3000 BCE

An ancient Neolithic burial ground, located on a chalk ridge, near Avebury. The excavation of the archaeological site in 1955-56 resulted in the monument we see today. As one of the longest barrows in Britain, totaling around 100 m & >15,000 man-hours expended in its construction, it consists of several chambers which were used for both burial and rituals for about 1,000 years. Its construction commenced about 3,000 BCE, ie. 400 years before the first stage of Stonehenge; used till 2,500 BCE.

The "Beaker" people

2400 BCE

After 2400 BC, new groups of people arrived from Europe; strong-built, taller than Britons & with more advanced military or metal working skills. Their influence was soon felt & became leaders of the B* society. They had individual graves furnished with pottery beakers. They probably spoke an Indo-European language & brought skills to make bronze tools which replaced stone ones, as well as a new cereal, barley, which grew anywhere: communal tombs were no longer needed to please the gods of soil.

Maiden Castle, Dorset

1300 BCE

One of the largest Celtic hill-forts of the early Iron Age. From about 1300 BC on, the henge civilisation became less important. A new farming society developed to feed the people at the henges, and eventually became more important. The new farmers grew wealthy b/c they learned to enrich the soil. Family villages & fortified enclosures appeared across the landscape. Hill-forts replaced henges as the centres of local power. Their fortifications were no defence against disciplined Roman troops.

The Celts I

750 BCE

From about 750 BC on, a group of people arrived from central Europe. They did so in one wave after another over the next 700 years. Technically advanced and with iron-working skills, they could make better weapons than those who used bronze. It is unknown whether they were invaders or arrived peacefully as a result of the trade with Europe. They were organised in tribes. The last Celtic arrivals from Europe were the Belgic tribes.

The Celts II

750 BCE

The Celtic tribes continued the same kind of agriculture as the Bronze Age people before them. But their use of iron and their introduction of more advanced ploughing methods made it possible to farm heavier soils. Yet, hill-forts remained the centre for local groups, even after the Romans came to B*. The tribes were ruled by a warrior class whose priests, called Druids, were unable to read but memorised the religious teachings, tribal laws, history, medicine, etc. They had no temples.

Roman Invasions I (Julius Caesar)

55 BCE

Julius Caesar invades the B* territory in 54-55 BC to SUBDUE the Celts in Britain who were helping the REBELS in Gaul, giving them food and shelter. The invasion was a reaction to this joint work against the Romans. Besides, the Romans aimed at using the British Celts' food for feeding their own army, who were fighting the Gauls. The Romans brought reading/writing to Britain, as well as Latin –spoken by some town dwellers–, though this language disappeared when the Anglo-Saxons invaded.

Roman Invasions II (Claudius)

43

In 43 the Romans invaded Britain again, this time under Claudius & actually occupied the territory, determined to conquer the whole island. They had little difficulty because they had a better-trained army.

The Celts III

61

During the Celtic period, women had more independence than later. Two of the largest tribes were ruled by women who fought from their chariots. The most powerful Celt to stand up to the Romans was a woman, Boadicea /boudika/. In AD 61, she led her tribe against the Romans & destroyed London, the Roman capital, before she was defeated and killed. Roman descriptions of this leave an impression of a measure of equality between the sexes among the richer Celts.

Hadrian's Wall

122

Also called the Roman Wall, it was a defensive fortification in the Roman province of Britannia, built between AD 122-32 in the reign of the Roman emperor Hadrian. It ran from the North Sea to the Irish Sea, near the present boundary between England & Scotland. Its aim was to withstand the incursions /advances of the rebellious northern tribes into the Roman Empire. There were forts every now and then with soldiers to control.

Roman Invasions III (Cultural changes)

300

These are some of the cultural changes in Roman Britain: Towns were better organised & civilised. Roads developed & Roman architecture left its trace, such as in the British city of Bath, known by the Roman-built baths. "Villas", ie. large farms; taxes were imposed. Rome's imperial strategy was, first, to incorporate the local elites & gradually spread citizenship, with all its advantages, throughout the territory. Hence, elites had access to benefits, while slaves & workers remained the same.

Fall of the Roman Empire & the Visigoths

410

Roman control of Britain came to an end as the empire began to collapse, circa 357. The Romans left Britain in 409 and in 410 Rome was attacked by the Visigoths, led by Alaric 1st, in the Sack of Rome: it was the first time in 800 years that Rome had fallen to a foreign enemy, a major landmark in the fall of the Roman Empire.

Saxon Invasions

430

The Romans were no longer in the territory to defend it, so, according to Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People, the invaders came from 3 powerful Germanic tribes: the Angles (settled in the N & E), the Saxons (settled in the S) and the Jutes (in the W). These migrations gave a large part of Britain its new name, England.
The strength of the Anglo-Saxon culture is obvious even today in day's names based on Germanic gods, or toponyms (-ham = farm; -ton = settlement; -ing = family).

King Arthur Legend

450

A victorious warrior, the leader of the Celtic population who were fighting the invaders. A number of better-designed bronze SWORDS were found in the THAMES VALLEY, which suggests that the local people had more advanced METALWORKING skills. Many of these have been found in river beds, almost certainly thrown in for religious reasons. This may be the origin of the legendary King Arthur's sword, which was given to him from out of the water and was later thrown back into the water when he died.

Saint Patrick (1st Phase in the Hiberno-Scottish Missions)

450

Christianity was spread in Hibernia, today Ireland, by an upper-class Roman Briton –in his early youth, a slave of the Irish–, Patricius, who later became the 'patron saint' of Ireland. Thanks to the Christian evangelical mission of Saint Patrick and his followers, Ireland was largely Christian by the early 6th century. Christianity brought writing, which weakened the position of Druids, who depended on memory and spoken word. His mission was continued by his disciple Columba of Iona.

Columba of Iona (2nd Phase in the Hiberno-Scottish Missions)

563

A disciple of Saint Patrick, he converted the northern Picts in Scotland. In 563, he founded a monastery in the Isle of Iona /aióna/, today Scotland, where the missions to convert the Scots started.
The year of his death, in 597, Pope Gregory started the second evangelical wave of conversion, aimed at the royal classes.

The Celtic displacement

570

The British Celtic were pushed westwards until in 570 were forced and driven into the mountains in the far west, which the Saxons called Wales, meaning 'the land of foreigners'. Some Celts were driven into Cornwall & Scotland or, when they left behind, became slaves of the Saxons.
Hardly anything is left of the Celtic language or culture in England, except for the names of some rivers: Thames or Avon, & cities: London & Leeds.

Pope Gregory (Second Christian Evangelical Wave)

597

Pope Gregory sent a monk, Augustine, to Canterbury in an evangelical mission. The Pope aimed at converting the Anglo-Saxon kings, who at the beginning seemed to accept the conversion, accepting Christianity as their new religion. Yet, the conversion was skin-deep, ie. not very effective, since after the king died, the conversion didn't last.

Witan

600

Operating between 7th-11th century, this institution was none other than the King's Council, which made the English state strong for the following 500 years. Its name meaning "meeting of wise men", it grew out of informal groups of senior warriors and clergymen to whom the king turned for advice or support. By the 10th century, the Witan had issued laws and charters. It was not democratic and the king could decide to ignore its advice. If so, he knew that his authority was in danger, though.

Sutton Hoo

625

Located in Suffolk and discovered in 1939, the site dating from 7th cent has a ship with helmets, weapons & Celtic designs dating from that time, e.g. The Great Buckle, showing designs with interlaces, which a Lord or a King used to wear upon; shoulder-clasps given as an award to soldiers. This was a warrior-like society which valued the feat of soldiers. Also, there was a grave field which contained individual barrows reserved for people buried with objects showing they had wealth of prestige.

Monastery of Lindisfarne

635

Aidan, an Irish monk from Iona, founded a monastery in the island of Lindisfarne.
The monks first came to the island in the year 635 but fled after the violent Viking attack in 793. The ruins you see today are from the early 12th century, when the threat of further raids had receded.

Synod of Whitby

664

The King of Northumbria ordered that his kingdom would calculate Easter according to the customs of Rome rather than the customs practised by the Irish monks at Iona. The kings gave prominence to the Roman church since it was powerful & spread all over Europe, so it was more convenient in political & economic terms.
The King’s words in favour of the Roman party: ‘I dare not longer contradict the decrees of him who keeps the doors of the Kingdom of Heaven, lest he should refuse me admission.’

Anglo-Saxon settlements

700

By 700 the Anglo-Saxon have settled & different kingdoms have arisen: Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, Sussex, etc.
King Offa of Mercia (757-96) claimed the "kingship of England," as he had been powerful enough to employ thousands of men to build a dyke to keep out the troublesome Celts.

Lindisfarne Gospels

710

Written in 710-25, the Lindisfarne Gospels was a book with illuminations today kept in the British Library, which contributed to define the growing sense of 'Englishness'.

Viking Invasions I - Sacking of Lindisfarne

793

The Vikings invaded Britan twice. Coming from Norway and Denmark, their raids began in England in the late 8th century, primarily on monasteries. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle described the Vikings as heathen men. The first monastery to be raided was in 793 at Lindisfarne. These invasions resulted in Vikings ruling a large portion of England.

Viking Invasions I - London raid & settlement

842

More Viking invaders arrived in London in 842 and the city was raided. It was clear that Anglo-Saxon kingdoms could not keep them out. This time the Vikings had come to conquer & settle. The Vikings accepted Christianity and did not disturb the local population.

The 'Great Heathen Army'

865

This army, composed of members of different Scandinavian tribes, arrived in 865. Their aim was occupation by controlling the lands they harried by installing kings sympathetic to them, eg. in Northumbria & Mercia.

The Danelaw

875

As recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Danelaw is a historical name given to the region of England in which the laws of the Danes were applied after the Viking Invasions. It comprised East Anglia and stretched from the eastern half of Anglo-Saxon Mercia, as far north as Northumbria, as far south as the Thames and as far east as Wattling Street. (Approximately, a 3rd portion of today’s England, towards the East).

Alfred the Great vs Vikings

878

Only King Alfred the Great of Wessex held out against the Vikings, who had already taken most of England. He firstly won the decisive Battle of Edington in 878 & captured London eight years later. In this way, Alfred managed to constrain the Vikings to the region of the Danelaw (East & North of England) which the Heathen Armies had taken over. He signed a treaty with the Vikings and, in the rest of regions Alfred was recognised as the king.

King Edward the Elder

899

Following his father King Alfred's death, in 899, he was crowned King of Wessex. He embarked in a series of successful campaigns to reassert English rule in the territory over the Danelaw, defeating the Vikings.

Eric Bloodaxe expulsion

954

The expulsion of the Viking king Bloodaxe marked an end to the 1st wave of Viking invasions.

Æthelred the Unready (978-1013 / 1014-16)

991

The first wave of Viking invasions ended with the expulsion of the Bloodaxe, but the Vikings didn't leave for good. In order to have them off, Æthelred, the Saxon King of the English, decided to pay them to stay away. To find the money, he set a universal land tax raised both to pay for soldiers & ships and to buy the enemy off. A series of successive attacks by & against the Danes, made him flee to Normandy in 1013 with his wife Emma. In 1014, he was recalled by the Witan, but he died in 1016.

Canute (1016-35)

1016

Canute, leader of the Danish Vikings controlled much of England. After King Edmund’s death & due to his power, he was accepted as a king and crowned by the Witan, who feared disorder: they preferred a Danish king to no king at all. He married Ethelred’s widow Emma.
Canute died in 1035 & his two sons Harold (illegitimate) and Harthacnut (Emma’s son) quarrelled. Harold became king in 1038 and when he died, in 1040, Harthacnut got the throne.

Harold & Harthacknut (1038-42)

1038

Canute died in 1035 & his two sons Harold (illegitimate) and Harthacnut (Emma’s son) quarrelled. Harold became king in 1038 and when he died, in 1040, Harthacnut got the throne. Born in 1018, son of Canute & Emma of Normandy. He was the last Scandinavian to rule Britain & after he died unexpectedly, he was succeeded by Edward the Confessor, one of Saxon Ethelred's sons, whose throne was secured by a powerful Anglo-Saxon courtier.

Edward the Confessor (1042-66)

1042

Son of Ethelred the Unready, Edward was crowned after the decision of a powerful Anglo-Danish courtier, Godwin of Wessex. He married Godwin's daughter & became his puppet.
A deeply religious man renowned for his interest in the Church greater than that in kingship, he encouraged the re-building of Westminster Ab.
He died in 1066 with no natural successor; England was faced with a power struggle for control of the throne. The Witan chose Harold Godwin, who had no royal blood, to be the next king.

Harold Godwin

1066

Harold Godwin had no royal blood though he had been elected by the Witan for the throne. His right to the throne was challenged by Duke William of Normandy, who had been previously promised the throne not only by King Edward the Confessor, but also by Harold! For this reason, William & his army landed in England; they were better armed & organised and mounted in horses. Harold, whose tired army had just fought against the Danes, was defeated & killed in the Battle of Hastings.

Norman Invasion: Battle of Hastings

Oct 14, 1066

The death of Edward the Confessor (King of Anglo-Saxon England) set up a succession struggle between several claimants to his throne. Harold Godwin was crowned king to succeed the former childless king, but the decision wasn't popular; William Duke of Normandy, a distant blood relative of Edward, felt he had more right to the English throne. He gathered his troops and crossed the Channel to Britain, taking part in one of the bloodiest and fiercest battles in the British history.

Bayeux Tapestry

Oct 15, 1066

This tapestry is an embroidered cloth nearly 70 m long and 50 cm tall, which depicts the events leading up to the Norman conquest of England concerning William, Duke of Normandy, and Harold, Earl of Wessex, later King of England, and culminating in the Battle of Hastings. It is thought to date to the 11th century, within a few years after the battle. Made in England but kept in France, from 2022 it will be loaned to Britain for public display at the British Museum.

Norman Invasion: Cultural changes

Oct 16, 1066

Some profound cultural, social economic and linguistic changes: natives were removed from high governmental and ecclesiastical office; William systematically dispossessed English landowners and conferred their property on his continental followers; many Anglo-Saxons fled the country & Normans settled in England; the Kings of England had to pay homage to the French Kings; French became the language of the king’s court and blended with Anglo-Saxon, evolving into the modern English language.

Feudalism

1067

The Normans developed a different political, economic & social system: the King granted lands or fiefs (an estate of land, esp one held on condition of feudal service) to his vassals in EXCHANGE FOR SERVICES, military or economic. The division of tasks was clear-cut: those who pray, those who fight, those who work. The King owned the land & the vassals held the land. Men had to PROMISE loyalty & service to his lord, the lord on his chair & his vassal kneeling in front of him, known as 'HOMAGE'.

Norwich Castle

1067

A medieval royal fortification in the city of Norwich, in the English county of Norfolk. It was founded in the aftermath of the conquest of England when William the Conqueror ordered its destruction because he wished a fortified place in the town of Norwich. It proved to be his only castle in East Anglia.

Cathedral of Canterbury

1070

Located in Kent, it is one of the oldest and most famous Christian structures in England. It is the cathedral of the Archbishop of Canterbury, leader of the Church of England and symbolic leader of the worldwide Anglican Communion. It was founded in 597, with Augustine’s missions sent by Pope Gregory. It was completely rebuilt during William The Conqueror’s reign, between 1070-77. A century later Thomas Becket was murdered there in 1170.

Windsor Castle

1076

Being the royal residence at Windsor in the English county of Berkshire, it was built in the 11th century after the Norman invasion by William the Conqueror. It was originally designed to protect Norman dominance around the outskirts of London and oversee a strategically important part of the River Thames.

The White Tower

1080

This is a central tower at the Tower of London, built by William the Conqueror during the early 1080s. It was the castle’s strongest point militarily & provided accommodation for the king and his representatives, as well as a chapel.

Crusades (1095-1204)

1095

The Pope summoned the whole Christendom to engage in a campaign to recover Jerusalem from the Muslims. In exchange, the forgiving of sins if they took the cross to the Holy Land, ie. Jerusalem and its surroundings, a site of pilgrimage for Christians & Jews. They had religious and geopolitical imperatives, eg. recover the lands in order to be in control of trade or give a new birth to Christianity.
There were FOUR Crusades, which could be taken as one of the first instances of colonisation.

First Crusade (1096-99)

1096

Jerusalem represented a traditional site of pilgrimage for the Christians. The city had been taken by the Muslims centuries ago, so it seems the Pope aimed not only at recovering Jerusalem but also to give Christianity a new birth. The English succeeded in the campaign in 1099, as the city was recovered. Yet, other Crusades were carried out in order to recover the territories invaded by the Muslims, get rid of the threats they implied and, finally and most importantly, take control of trade.

Westminster Hall

1099

Westminster Hall, the oldest existing part of the Palace of Westminster, was erected in 1097, at which point it was the largest hall in Europe.

Second Crusade

1147

1147-49 Led by Kings of France & Germany

Angevin Empire (1154-1216)

1154

When Henry 2nd became King of England, the English kingdom expanded, as he held half of France’s lands, called the Angevin Empire. Its regions were Normandy, Champagne, Brittany, Aquitaine, Toulouse, etc.
In 1204, John the Lackland, who was son of Henry the 2nd, lost all the territories of the Kingdom held in France. This meant that the King, as a feudal lord, had not been able to defend the holdings of his barons. He had failed his duty as a feudal lord since his barons also lost the lands.

Plantagenet Dynasty

Period: 1154 to 1272

Henry 2nd
his son, Richard 1st the Lionheart (fought in the Third Crusades)
his brother, John Lackland (raised taxes, compelled to sign Magna Carta)
Henry 3rd (captured & forced to set up a 'Parliament', the start of House of Commons)

Henry 2nd (1154-1189) & Thomas Becket

1170

He aimed at eliminating the benefits of clergy, which Thomas Becket, his counselor & Archbishop of Canterbury defended. The latter claimed that the clergymen had to be judged in ecclesiastical courts by Cannon Law, the punishments of which were less severe, and not in secular courts, which judged the common people with more severe punishments. He also stated that the Church has greater authority than the king; Henry 2nd decided that he needed "somebody rid [him] of this turbulent priest".

Third Crusade (Saladin)

1187

1187-1192 Saladin & the Muslims take Jerusalem forever.

Richard 1st Lionheart (1189-99) Plantagenet/Angevin

1189

Son of Henry 2nd, he was King of England from 1189. One of England's most popular kings, although his culture was French, as shown by his nickname 'Coeur de Lion'. Followed by his brother John the Lackland after his death in 1199, he had spent no more than 4 or 5 years in 'his' country.
McDowall depicts Richard 1st as a brave & honourable king who went to the Holy Land to fight the Muslims. However, in Maalouf, he's represented as a cruel leader, because he tortured children, women & soldiers.

Maalouf / Saladin / Richard Lionheart

1190

In what light does Maloof describe Saladin and the English King? We are often told history the other way around: The Muslims are often described as merciless and cold-blooded, whereas history tells us the opposite: Saladin didn’t kill the prisoners, while Richard did prefer to slaughter them, and was not at all as merciful as he is often described.

John the Lackland (1199-1216) Plantagenet

1199

Crowned after his brother Richard 1st Lionheart death, John had already made himself unpopular with the nobles, the merchants & the Church, because he carried out abuses of power: he profited by the fines paid out in the court, among other things. He also raised taxes. After the Pope closed all churches in England after quarreling with John, his unpopularity went so far that, in 1215, he was forced to sign a new agreement: Magna Carta, the Great Charter, an important symbol o political freedom.

Fourth Crusade

1202

1202-1204 The expedition aimed at taking control over the city of Jerusalem, but it didn't succeed.

Magna Carta

1215

Signed by John the Lackland in 1215, Magna Carta, the Great Charter, was an important symbol of political freedom. It was the first Charter to underpin civil rights in a rule of law. The king promised all 'freemen' protection from his officers & the right to a fair and legal trial. Magna Carta gave no real freedom to the majority of people in England, eg women & slaves. The nobles who signed it had one main aim: to make sure John didn't go beyond his rights as a feudal lord, ie. abuses of power.

Henry 3rd (1216-72)

1216

In 1264, Henry was captured during the baronnial revolt led by Simon de Montfort and was forced to set up a ‘Parliament’ at Westminster, the start of the House of Commons.

Decline of Feudalism (after Magna Carta)

1216

Whereas Feudal society was based on links between lords and vassals, Magna Carta was the evidence that nobles were acting as a class claiming rights. Moreover, the king was forced to pay soldiers to fight for him at war. At the same time, many lords preferred their vassals to pay them in money rather than in services, so they changed into tenants. These were signs that feudalism, ie. the use of land in return for service, was beginning to weaken. But it took 300 years to disappear for good.

The Proto-Parliament

1254

When in 1253 Henry returned to campaign in France, his brother, Richard of Cornwall, found he could not raise the requisite money, and summoned a ‘parlement’, a discussion composed not just of barons and bishops but, for the first time, of shire representatives. This Proto-Parliament first met at Easter 1254.

Provisions of Oxford

1258

They stated that foreigners shall be expelled from all affairs of state, together with papal emissaries & overseas bankers. The provisions went beyond a charter of civil liberties to address the structure of monarchical government: a council of 15 under Simon de Montfort was put above the king’s council of 24, accountable to a Parliament that would meet 3 times a year, irrespectively of the King’s summon. A breakthrough: they didn’t need the king to call them up & they had to meet all the same.

Simon De Montfort (Baronial Revolt)

1263

He led the baronial rebellion against Henry 3rd of England, culminating in the Second Barons' War. He defeated the royal forces & became de facto ruler of the country, playing a major role in the constitutional development of England. He called two famous parliaments: the 1st stripped the King of unlimited authority; the 2nd included ordinary citizens from the towns. Regarded today as one of the progenitors of modern parliamentary democracy. As Earl of Leicester he expelled Jews from the city.

Edward 1st (1272-1307)

1273

Son of Henry 3rd, he's known for restoring royal authority after the reign of Henry 3rd, establishing Parliament as a permanent institution, a functional system for raising taxes, and reforming the law through statutes. At the same time, he is also often criticised for other actions, such as his brutal conduct towards the Welsh and Scots, and officially expelling the Jews from England.
He was succeeded by his son Edward 2nd.

1277-83

1277

Edward 1st conquered Wales.

House of Commons

1295

Edward 1st was the first to create a representative institution which provided the money he needed. The institution became the House of Commons. Unlike the House of Lords, it contained a mixture of 'gentry' (knights & other wealthy freemen from the shires) & merchants from the towns. They were the two classes of people who produced & controlled England's wealth.

"Auld Alliance" (Scotland and France)

1295

Made in 1295 between the kingdoms of Scotland and France, the alliance was formed for the purpose of controlling England's numerous invasions. The Scots' word 'auld', meaning 'old', has become a partly affectionate term for the long-lasting alliance between the two countries. It remained until the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh in 1560.

Battle of Stirling Bridge

1297

William Wallace defeated the English at this battle, vividly recreated in the film Braveheart. He has been described as "patriot, martyr and guardian of Scotland".

Edward 2nd (1307-1327) Plantagenet

1307

In an attempt to control Scotland, he was defeated in several battles, eg. the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314. He married Isabella of France, the daughter of the powerful King Philip IV, as part of a long-running effort to resolve the tensions between the English and French crowns. She turned against him & invaded England with a small army in 1326. Edward's regime collapsed & he was captured. Edward was forced to relinquish his crown in 1327 in favour of his 14-year-old son, Edward 3rd.

Battle of Bannockburn

1314

The Scot Robert the Bruce and his army defeated the English.

Edward 3rd (1327-1377) Plantagenet

1327

He is noted for restoring royal authority after the disastrous and unorthodox reign of his father, Edward 2nd. His long reign of 50 years was the second longest in medieval England and saw vital developments in legislation and government, in particular, the evolution of the English parliament, as well as the ravages of the Black Death, which killed half the population of England.
His ambition to conquer Scotland and France plunged England into the Hundred Years War, beginning in 1337.

Hundred Years' War I (1337-1453)

1337

English troubles with France resulted from the French King's growing authority: to make his position stronger, he began to interfere with England's trade. Edward 3rd went to war b/c he couldn't afford the destruction of its trade with Flanders. He declared himself rightful heir to the French throne in 1337, starting the war. Known as "the Edwardian War", this first phase of the war went exceptionally well for England. He re-established control over areas previously held by the English Crown.

Hundred Years War

Period: 1337 to 1453

Started because of the French King's growing authority & his interference with England's trade, during Edward 3rd reign.
The war ended with the loss of Gscony in 1453: ENgland had lost everything except the Port of Calais.

Aestheticisation of war & Chivalry values

1347

“Wog begins at Calais” is a saying that refers to the attitude of the English towards foreigners: the English, once they crossed the channel, they were standing on foreign territories (?). A patriotic sense of English identity, though with a chauvinistic edge. This was a warlike society, so the concept of chivalry increased its value. There was an aestheticisation of war in a warlike society: chivalry values. The knight was supposed to build homage to the lady.

The Black Death

1348

Death was an ever-present character in medieval times. The living conditions, the dirt & the rats mostly affected the poor classes. The aristocracy ran away from the city seeking protection; lower classes couldn't, so they died. There started to be a lack of workers & the nobles wouldn’t work the land; therefore, the price of work raised, which was a problem for the landowners. They therefore lowered the price of wages back to the days before the plague & the workers didn't have much choice...

Treaty of Brétigny - HYW II

1360

After Edward 3rd regained control of old English territories in France, he gave up his claim by the Treaty of Brétigny. But the French king had only unwillingly accepted this situation, so the war didn't end. The HYW was fought on and off, not continuously, for the territorial possessions of the Engl kings in French soil. If you owned the land, you didn’t have to pay homage, customs & trade interest to the King; the E* wanted the throne of these lands so that they didn’t need to pay the French.

Richard 2nd (1377-99) Plantagenet

1377

After his father Edward 3rd died, Richard 2nd was crowned at the age of 11. His advisers introduced a tax payment, which triggered the Peasant's Revolt. Once their leader Wat Tyler was killed, he promised to meet all people's demands to quieten the angry crowd, but he didn't. In 1399, Henry of Lancaster returned from exile and deposed Richard, becoming elected King Henry 4th.

The Peasants' Revolt (Wat Tyler's Rebellion / The Great Rising)

1381

After his father Edward 3rd died, Richard 2nd was crowned at the age of 11. His advisers introduced a tax payment for every person over the age of 15 & in 1381 this tax was increased 3 times the previous amount. There was an immediate revolt in the richer areas, since there ordinary people had become more aware & confident of their rights & power. Another reason for discontent was poor working conditions. The idea that God had created all people equal called for an end to Feudalism.

The Lollards: John Wycliffe (Bible translator)

1382

The Peasant's Revolt was a sign of discontent with both state & Church, which were growing. While many continued to accept the authority of the Church, others introduced new religious ideas which were dangerous & condemned as heresy. They were known as Lollardy, with John Wycliffe, an Oxford professor as one of the leaders. He believed everyone should read the Bible in English to save their souls & so translated it into English. He wasn't allowed to publish it in England & was burned at stake.

Henry 4th (1399-1413) Lancaster

1399

When Richard 2nd was busy trying to establish royal authority in Ireland, he raised an army & Richard was deposed. Son of Edward 3rd, Henry 4th was accepted as king by the Parliament. Deeply loyal to the Church, he didn't support the Lollards' new ideas. To such an extent that, in 1401, he introduced into England for the first time the idea of executing the Lollards by burning. Henry spent the rest of his reign trying to establish his royal authority. He had sown the seeds of civil war (Roses).

House of Lancaster

Period: 1399 to 1461

Henry 4th (1399-1413) Executed Lollards
Henry 5th (1413-22)
Henry 6th (1422-61) HYW finally ending in 1453 with the loss of all French lands except for Calais / War of Roses began

Henry 5th (1413-22) Lancaster

1415

Henry 5th pleased his nobles by renewing the war with France, making a new claim to the French throne. His army defeated the French at the Battle of Agincourt, as the English were more skilful and had better weapons. Henry 5th was recognised as heir to the mad king of France, yet he died in 1422, leaving the crown to his baby son, Henry 6th, who was only 9 months.

Henry 6th (1422-61 / 1470-71) Lancaster

1422

Crowned king as a baby, he hated warlike nobles & was an unsuitable king for such a violent society. He founded Eton College, near London & King's College, in Cambridge. Yet, he had periods of mental illness & the nobility was discontented to the gradual loss of lands in France, so they divided between the 'Lancastrians', who supported Henry & the 'Yorkist', who supported the Duke of York. Civil war broke out in 1459, leading to a long period of dynastic conflict known as the Wars of the Roses.

Siege of Orléans: Joan of Arc - HYW III

1428

The English forces sieged the city of Orléans, though the French army, led by Joan of Arc, resisted and defeated them, this battle being the turning point in the Hundred Years' War. Joan was captured by the Burgundians, sold to the English, and burned as a witch in 1431.

Battle of Patay - HYW IV

1429

French victory which was like the Battle of Agincourt for the English.

Jack Cade's Revolt

1450

A major rebellion against the government of Henry 6th. Although the uprising was suppressed, it contributed to the breakdown of royal authority that led to the Wars of the Roses (1455-87) between the houses of York and Lancaster.

Battle of Castillion - HYW V

1453

The war did not end until 1453 when the English Crown lost all its possessions in France except for the Port of Calais, in the north of France. The consequences of the war were: an increased taxation and need for Commons approval, therefore a rise in the influence of Commons; a patriotic sense of English identity, though with a chauvinistic sense ('Wogs –foreigners– begin at Calais'); devastation and suffering in France during the war; aestheticisation of war; commerce was not much affected.

Wars of the Roses (1455-87)

1455

A fratricide war, a long period of dynastic conflict triggered by the discontented nobility, who were divided bet those who remained loyal to Henry 6th, the 'Lancastrians' (red rose) & those who supported the Duke of York, the 'Yorkist' (white rose). Henry 6th (Lancaster) is finally succeeded by Edward 4th (York). Then, Henry VII comes back to power for one year and Edward 4th regains power.

Imprisonment of Henry 6th

1461

The nobility was divided into 'Yorkists' and 'Lancastrians', and Edward Duke of York claimed the throne. He captured King Henry 6th, deposing him, and confined him into the Tower of London for 9 years. In 1470, Henry was rescued by a Lancastrian army and Edward was chased out of the country. A year later, he returned, defeated the Lancastrians, and Henry 6th died, almost certainly murdered in the Tower.

Edward 4th (1461-83) York

1461

Crowned after his father Richard Duke of York and Protector of England died, he confined Henry 6th to the Tower of London for 9 years. When Henry 6th was rescued, Edward 4th was expelled from the realm. Once back to England, Edward 4th defeated the Lancastrians and Henry 6th died in the Tower, almost certainly murdered. Edward 4th died in 1483, his two sons being potential heirs to the throne, of 9 & 12 years old. His brother Richard 3rd kept the boys into the Tower of London and took the crown.

House of York

Period: 1461 to 1485

Edward 4th (1461-83) Son of Richard Duke of York / Disapproved by his contemporaries b/c of his poor morals
Edward 5th (1483) Reigned for 2 months / Murdered with his brother in the Tower of London
Richard 3rd (1483-1485) Accused of murdering his nephews / Killed in the Battle of Bosworth Field (War of the Roses)

Henry 6th: rescued but killed

1470

In 1470, Henry was rescued by a Lancastrian army and Edward 4th was chased out of the country. A year later, he returned, defeated the Lancastrians, and Henry 6th died, almost certainly murdered in the Tower.

Richard 3rd (1483-85) York

1483

When Edward 4th died in 1483, his own two sons were put in the Tower of London by his own brother Richard of Gloucester, who took the crown and became Richard 3rd. A month later, the two young princes were murdered.
Richard 3rd was an unpopular king: both Yorkists & Lancastrians disliked him. Challenged by Henry Tudor, Richard 3rd was killed in the Battle of Bosworth & Henry was crowned king.

End of Middle Ages in Britain

1485

Merchant organisations had gained power & consolidated as the middle class.

Tudor Dynasty

Period: 1485 to 1603

English royal dynasty of Welsh origin, which gave five sovereigns to England:
Henry 7th (reigned 1485–1509)
his son, Henry 8th (1509–47) [break with the papacy in Rome (1534) and began the English Reformation, which, after turns and trials, culminated in the establishment of the Anglican church under Elizabeth I]
followed by Henry 8th’s three children:
Edward 6th (1547–53)
Mary 1st (1553–58)
Elizabeth 1st (1558–1603)

Battle of Bosworth Field (War of the Roses)

Aug 22, 1485

The last significant battle of the War of the Roses, the civil war between the Houses of Lancaster and York that extended across England in the latter half of the 1400's. Fought on 22 August 1485, the battle was won by the Lancastrians. Their leader Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, by his victory became the first English monarch of the Tudor dynasty. His opponent, Richard III, the last king of the House of York, was killed in the battle.

Henry 7th (1485-1509) Tudor

Aug 23, 1485

The kingdom that Henry 7th received is seen as a devastated state. He married a York woman, so a new period starts, in which these internal fights do no longer take place.

Henry 8th (1509-47) Tudor

1509

The 2nd Tudor monarch, succeeding his father, Henry VII, he is best known for his six marriages, in particular his efforts to have his 1st marriage, to Catherine of Aragon, annulled. His disagreement with the Pope on the question led Henry to initiate the English Reformation, separating the Church of England from papal authority & the foundation of his own Anglican Church. He wanted a male heir, Edward 6th, who succeeded him after his death, at the age of 9, but had an early death shortly after.

Acts of Union with Wales (Henry 8th)

1536

In 1536 and 1543, Henry VIII passed what later came to be called the 'Acts of Union' with Wales finally abolishing the Marcher lordships (?).

Edward 6th (1547-53) Tudor

1547

Son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, Edward was a sickly boy; it is thought he suffered from tuberculosis. Edward succeeded his father at the age of 9. He didn't live longer & was suceeded by Bloody Mary 1st.

Book of Common Prayer

1549

The Book of Common Prayer is the short title of a number of related prayer books used in the Anglican Communion, as well as by other Christian churches historically related to Anglicanism. The original book, published in 1549 in the reign of Edward 6th, was a product of the English Reformation following the break with Rome. The work of 1549 was the first prayer book to include the complete forms of service for daily and Sunday worship in English.

Queen Bloody Mary 1st (1553-1558) Tudor

1553

Daughter of Henry 8th; married to Philip 2nd of Spain and a devout Catholic, Mary attempted to enforce the wholesale conversion of England to Catholicism. She persecuted and burned Protestants at the stake, as she attempted to revert the Church Reformation process initiated by Henry 8th. The country was plunged into a bitter blood bath, which is why she is remembered as Bloody Mary.

Elizabeth 1st (1558-1603) Tudor

1558

Daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth was a remarkable woman, noted for her learning and wisdom. From first to last she was popular with the people and had a genius for the selection of capable advisors. Drake, Raleigh, Hawkins, the Cecils, Essex and many many more made England respected and feared. The Spanish Armada was decisively defeated in 1588 and Raleigh’s first Virginian colony was founded. Elizabeth never married orhave children.

Union of the Crowns - Unification of Scotland, England & Ireland

1603

The Union of the Crowns was the accession of James 6th of Scotland to the thrones of England and Ireland, and the consequential unification of the three realms under a single monarch on 24 March 1603. The Union of Crowns followed the death of Elizabeth I of England, the last monarch of the Tudor dynasty.

James 1st (1603-25) (House of Stuart)

1603

Despite the many English invasions throughout its history, Scotland was independent until 1603, when King James VI inherited the English throne and became James I - he was the closest relative of the Queen of England, Elizabeth I, who had died childless. But even though it was linked to powerful England, Scotland had its own parliament until it lost it in 1707, when the Act of Union instituted the union with England. Only after almost three centuries, in 1999, Scotland regained its parliament.

Charles 1st (1625-49)

1625

Son of James I & Anne of Denmark, he believed he ruled by Divine Right. He encountered difficulties with Parliament from the beginning, and this led to the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642. In 1646, Charles’s Royalist forces were defeated by the New Model Army (Oliver Cromwell). Charles was captured and imprisoned. The House of Commons tried him for treason against England & he was condemned to death. He was beheaded in 1649. The British monarchy was abolished.

Interregnum 1649-60

1649

A republican period in the three kingdoms of England, Ireland and Scotland. Government was carried out by the Commonwealth and the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell after the execution of Charles I and before the restoration of Charles II.

Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England (1653-58)

1653

He entered Parliament in 1629 and became active in events leading to the Civil War. A leading Puritan figure, he organised the New Model Army, which he led to victory over the Royalists in 1645. Failing to gain agreement on constitutional change in government with Charles I, Cromwell was a member of a ‘Special Commission’ that tried and condemned the king to death in 1649. Cromwell declared Britain a republic ‘The Commonwealth’ and he became its Lord Protector.

Glorious Revolution

1688

It was the overthrow of King James II of England (James VII of Scotland) by a union of English Parliamentarians with the Dutch stadtholder William III, Prince of Orange, who was James's nephew and son-in-law. William's successful invasion of England with a Dutch fleet and army led to his ascension to the throne as William III of England jointly with his wife, Mary II, James's daughter, after the Declaration of Right, leading to the Bill of Rights in 1689.

Interregnum 1688

1688

James II was deposed in the Glorious Revolution. The crown was restored with William III and Mary II as joint sovereigns in1689, pursuant to the Declaration of Right.

Darien Scheme

1698

The Darien scheme was an unsuccessful attempt by the Kingdom of Scotland to become a world trading nation by establishing a colony called "Caledonia" on the Isthmus of Panama on the Gulf of Darién in the late 1690s. Its failure left the entire Lowlands in substantial financial ruin.

Act of Settlement - Roman Catholics excluded from the throne

1701

Signed by William III, this Act of the Parliament of England was passed in 1701 to settle the succession to the English and Irish crowns on Protestants only. Anyone who became a Roman Catholic, or who married one, became disqualified to inherit the throne. The act was prompted by the failure of King William III and Queen Mary II (as well as of Mary's sister Queen Anne) to produce any surviving children, and the Roman Catholic religion of all other members of the House of Stuart.

Acts of Union: Scotland lost its Parliament (1707)

1707

The Scottish Parliament and the English Parliament united to form the Parliament of Great Britain, based in the Palace of Westminster. England's main concern was to assure the succession of a Protestant monarch, as stated by the Act of Settlement (1701), which excluded the Catholic.
Scotland's interest was to make use of the English subsidies to recover from the financial crises after Darien Scheme (Scotland's fruitless attempt to settle a colony in Panama in late 1690s).

Scottish Parliament back in Edinburgh

1998

The Scottish semi-independence, long debated, was introduced in 1998 by the Scotland Act, which soon followed the establishment of the Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh.

Bush refers to the "Crusades"

2001

Bush referred back to the "Crusades" to justify the campaign to capture Osama Bin Laden. He didn't care the term was sensitive for Muslims. This campaign was merely an excuse to invade the region for petrol exploitation.