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1215
Magna Carta
The Magna Carta was a very early form of a constitution. It guarenteed the nobility certain rights which the king could not violate and created parliament which still exists today. -
1233
The Papal Inquisition
In an attempt to root out heretics, Pope Gregory IX established the Papal Inquisition. The inquisition could arrest and even execute people if their faith was in question. Being the first of its kind, it inspired Spanish monarchs to use a much more violent version to convert Muslims. It was also used later on to try and stamp out Protestant groups forming in Europe. -
1271
End of the Crusades
For centuries, the Christian and Muslim worlds had clashed in the Middle East during the Crusades. Millions died in these religious conflicts but in the end, the Muslims pushed the Christians out and retained control of the holy land. With conflicts intensifying in Europe, the Crusades became less frequent going into the 14th century. -
1337
The Hundred Years war
The Hundred Years war was a conflict between England and France that lasted over a century. It saw brutal fighting as England tried to invade France. -
1347
Bubonic plague
The Bubonic plague, more commonly known as the black death, was a disease that spread across Europe from Asia. It killed an estimated 35% of the European population. This led to major instability as a large percentage of the workforce died. -
1358
First Treaty of London
After having beaten the French at Poitiers and captured the French king, the English sued for peace in another temporary stop to the Hundred Years War. In exchange for their king back, the French gave up a large ransom and several states. This truce would not last for long. -
1414
Council of Constance
The Council of Constance was a major reform of the Catholic church. It brought the papacy back to Rome and established one pope as the head of Catholicism. It failed to address growing resentment of indulgences. -
1420
Treaty of Troyes
After a series of English victories including the famous battle of Agincourt, the French accept Henry VI as their king. This would mark a temporary pause in the Hundred Years War. -
1429
Joan of Arc
An illiterate peasant girl named Joan of Arc led a French force against the English and won a major victory at Orleans. This marked a turning point in the Hundred Years War as the English retreated northwards. -
1450
The printing press
Johannes Gutenberg spent ten years developing Europe's first printing press. It would be revolutionary in bringing books, pamphlets, and propaganda to the masses. It would be useful to spread the upcoming reformation across Europe. -
1452
Leonardo Da Vinci
Leonardo Da Vinci was one of the greatest minds in the Renaissance. He is famous for his drawings and designs which were ahead of their time. He painted the Mona Lisa and the Vitruvian Man. -
1453
End of the Hundred Years War
The English failed and were entirely pushed out of the mainland except for Calais. Both sides would move on and focus on internal conflicts. Somewhere between 1-3 million people died during this war. -
1453
Sack of Constantinople
In 1453 the greatest city in the world was taken by the Ottomans. The sack of Constantinople caused many scholars to flee west to Italy. -
1479
The formation of Spain
Before the Iberian wedding, Spain was split between Aragon and Castille. The marriage of Ferdinand V and Isabella combined the two realms and made Spain a great power. The two would push the Moroccans out of Granada and send Columbus on his famed voyage. -
1485
End of the War of the Roses
The War of the Roses lasted from 1455 to 1485 and was fought between the house of Lancaster and the House of York in England. The two powerful families eventually put their differences aside and joined together beginning the Tudor dynasty. -
1492
Discovery of the Americas
In 1492 Christopher Columbus was sent into the pacific by the Spanish looking for a new route to India. He landed up in the Caribbean and discovered the new world. This would begin the race to colonize the Americas. -
1492
The Colombian exchange
The Colombian exchange was the process of bringing new goods, inventions, diseases, and foods from one side of the Atlantic to the other. Europeans were introduced to potatoes, tobacco, and chocolate while the natives got small pox. This would fuel large economic and population growth in Europe. -
1517
The 95 Theses
A German named Martin Luther was disgruntled with the church practice of selling indulgences. In 1517 he boldly nailed the first copy of the 95 theses on church door. This small action would kick off centuries of religious instability as the church split. -
1519
Calvinism
Calvinism was founded by John Calvin and is a sect of Catholicism. He promoted radical changes in the church with a new take on the bible. He preached predestination which meant that actions on Earth do not affect whether you go to heaven. -
1523
Anabaptists
Ulrich Zwingli inspired the creation of Anabaptism which is a sect of Catholicism. It preached that people should not be baptized until they are adults because it should be done out of a persons own free will. Anabaptists also believed in separation of church and state. They would face heavy oppression from the Catholic church who perceived them as a threat. -
1525
The German Peasant Revolt
In the Holy Roman Empire, hundreds of thousands of peasants rose up and attacked their lords. They did this in the hopes of getting better living conditions and an end to corrupt church. This attempt failed, but it signaled the growing desire for church reforms. -
1527
Second Sacking of Rome
From 1526 to 1530 Europe was embroiled in the War of the League of Cognac. The war was fought by the Austrians and the French over territories in Northern Italy. The destruction caused to many cities including Rome helped end the Renaissance. -
1532
Machiavelli's The Prince
An Italian diplomat named Machiavelli wrote a novel addressing how princes should behave. It argued that ruling by fear and force was the most effective way of governing. It can be seen as foreshadowing to the age of Absolutism. -
1534
The Anglican Church
Though he was once considered a defender of the Catholic faith, Henry VIII separated England from the Catholic church over the issue of divorce. He then forced this religion on his country and killed tens of thousands of people who opposed his church. The Anglican church is more or less the same as the Catholic one. The main difference is that the king is the head of the Anglican church. -
1543
Heliocentric Model Created
Nicolaus Copernicus was a Polish astronomer who became one of the first to propose the theory that the sun was not the center of the universe. Until this point it was believed that the Earth was the center of the solar system. It would be some time before the idea took hold because the church saw it as heretical. -
1545
The Council of Trent
As the reformation branched out, Catholic leaders convened a meeting to help revitalize the dying church. They revised and clarified many religious questions and finally brought an end to the practice of indulgences. -
1564
William Shakespeare
Shakespeare was one of the most influential writers in human history. He wrote over a hundred sonnets and a few dozen plays. The most famous of these included Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth, Hamlet, Julius Caesar, and king Lear. These writings are still read today and are an example of brilliant writing. -
Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher who strongly believed in the idea of absolutism. He thought that people were inherently evil and that to protect the people, they should sign a social contract giving absolute authority to a king. His ideology would become popular among the monarchs of Europe as they wrested power from the nobility and the poor. -
The Thirty Years War
The Thirty Years War is still one of the most destructive wars in European history. Fought in the Holy Roman Empire, it left an estimated 4-8 million dead. It was fought over the growing division in the Catholic church between Catholicism and Protestantism. -
Creation of Scientific method
An English politician named Francis Bacon was an avid scientist and a leader in the scientific revolution. During his studies he created a logical process which could be used when making scientific discoveries. The scientific process emphasized repetition and is still used today. -
John Locke
John Locke was an English philosopher who believed that people had certain inalienable rights that a government could not violate. If the government did violate the people's rights, then the people have the right to overthrow the government and create one with their best interests in mind. His idea of overthrowing the government would become popular in the oncoming age of revolutions. -
The English Civil War
The English civil war was a conflict between the English parliament and the English king. The king, Charles I, was becoming increasingly powerful and was no longer involving parliament in decision making. Seeing their power being wiped away, parliament took action sparking the conflict. It would last for several years and end with the death of Charles I and the eventual restoration of Charles II to the monarchy. England was a republic during the transition. -
Louis XIV
Louis XIV came to power in 1643 and reigned for over 72 years making him the longest reigning monarch in history. He would turn France into an empire and himself into a god. The way he remodeled French society to worship him is the signature trait of an absolute monarchy. He built Versailles, one of the most extravagant courts in Europe. While his rule made France very powerful, it did so at the expense of the people. His large spending would send France into financial crisis. -
End of the Commonwealth Period
After the English civil war and the death of Charles I, England became a republic. Parliament ran the country and instead of the king, a powerful leader known as Oliver Cromwell rose to power and ruled over England with an iron fist. After a few years of the republic, parliament decided that they needed a king and brought in Charles II. -
The Three Laws of Motion
Isaac Newton was one of the greatest scientists of the scientific revolution. He made many advances in the fields of calculus and optics. His most famous achievement came in the three laws of motion which remains the basis for Physics today. -
The Glorious Revolution
The Glorious revolution was another conflict in England between parliament and the king, James II. The people were disgruntled with how Catholic James II was and his growing power. This conflict would only last a year and would end with James II deposed and William of Orange from the Netherlands as the new king. -
The English Bill of Rights
The English Bill of Rights was an incredible document for the time. In the age of absolute monarchs, this document created a constitutional monarchy. The king had to yield to the power of parliament and was kept in check by the people. This early form of checks and balances would inspire others across the world to overthrow their monarchs and give power to the people. -
Peter The Great
Peter the Great became the ruler of Russia at the age of 24 and would oversee a massive change in culture. He would construct Saint Petersburg, a massive city on the Baltic. He forced Russians to learn European languages such as French. He westernized Russia and made it into an empire. -
Frederick The Great
Frederick the Great became king of Prussia in 1740. Prussia was the backwater of the Holy Roman Empire. A small disconnected string of territories which were loosely owned by the same king. Frederick changed all of this. He rapidly modernized his army and leading from the front, he massively expanded Prussia to become Austria's equal. He oversaw the partition of Poland and helped start ideas of a unified pan-German state. These ideas would eventually lead to the creation of the German empire. -
James Watt's steam engine
The steam engine was the premium tool of the industrial revolution. It allowed mass manufacturing of products using steam. James Watt perfected the engine allowing it to be used in factories across the world. His innovation helped fuel the growing industrial revolution. -
Laissez-Faire economics
As the industrial revolution kicked off, governments were unsure how to control the rapid growth of wealthy factory owners. Adam Smith's popular theory of Laissez-Faire economics stated that the government should let industry do its own thing and simply reap the benefits. This idea allowed manufacturing to grow exponentially at the expense of the poor working class. -
The last Estates General meeting
As France fell further into financial ruin, king Louis XVI called the estates general to determine what to do. The body was mostly useless as reforming the country and the lack of change would lead to the beginning of the French revolution. -
Storming of the Bastille
Not long after the National Assembly was created, the revolutionaries marched on the Bastille. The Bastille was a symbol of oppression and contained valuable weapons which the revolutionaries seized. Bastille is celebrated today as the moment the French broke free from monarchy. -
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
The Declaration of the rights of man and citizen was an incredibly influential document which guaranteed personal liberties for everyone. It was published by the National Assembly and served as the beginning of their constitution. It gave the people freedom of speech and freedom from oppression. -
Death of King Louis XVI
With the revolution becoming increasingly radical, many people wanted to abolish the monarchy entirely. When the king was believed to be corresponding with foreign powers to try and regain his throne, the people revolted. In a narrow vote the national assembly voted to get rid of the monarchy and charged Louis with treason. He was executed shortly after. With no monarch, the committee of public safety would rise to power and take his place. -
The Reign of Terror
Lasting for over a year, the reign of terror was an attempt to stabilize French society through violence. The Committee of Public Safety, led by Robespierre, executed tens of thousands of people for suspected crimes against the revolution. Tribunals were set up to send people to the guillotine if they even thought counter revolutionary thoughts. This period would end when the tyrannical Robespierre was executed. After this, the Directory would take control of France. -
Napoleon becomes Consul
After overthrowing the weak Directory, Napoleon wrote a constitution that established himself as first consul. His military victories had made him very popular among the French people and his reforms would make France into a superpower. The Napoleonic code was a legal system implemented across Europe and he got rid of many of the unpopular reforms made by previous revolutionary governments. -
Treaty of Pressburg
France had made many enemies during the revolution and in order to safeguard his new found power, Napoleon would have to crush the coalition of Austria, Prussia, and Russia. He pushed through Italy into Austria and crushed the coalition at Austerlitz. The coalition sued for peace shortly afterwards cementing France as Europe's leading power. -
The Peninsular War
Lasting over six years, the Peninsular war was a costly campaign Napoleon waged in Spain in an attempt to secure the Iberian peninsula. The Spanish people used guerrilla warfare and Napoleon never succeeded in securing Spain. It was one of Napoleon's first major failures. -
Napoleon's Invasion of Russia
Having conquered most of Europe, Napoleon's last major rival was the British across the English channel. Napoleon had implemented the continental system which was an unsuccessful attempt to embargo the British economy. Russia had initially complied with the system but as of 1812, they had started to ignore it. Angry over this, Napoleon decided to invade Russia with over 600,000 men. He would suffer a crushing defeat and return to France with only 40,000. -
Battle of Leipzig
With Napoleon weakened from his failure in Russia, the coalition reformed and met Napoleon's army at Leipzig. Outnumbered 2 to 1, Napoleon was completely defeated. He abdicated shortly afterwards and was exiled to the island of Elba. He would return to France after a short while to reclaim his throne. -
Battle of Waterloo
When Napoleon returned to France, he reclaimed his throne and rallied his army in an attempt to hold onto power. However, he did not stand a chance against the sheer size of the coalition. He tried to retake Belgium and gain a bargaining chip but ended up being routed at the Battle of Waterloo. He abdicated a second time and was exiled to Saint Helena where he stayed until he died.