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Shortly before a two century-long Golden Age called Pax Romana, Rome was in conflict with annexed ethnic groups, such as the Sabines, who wanted citizenship in return for all they've given to Rome. The fallout left Rome dissatisfied and in debt.
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Marcus Tullius Cicero, a lawyer from Arpinum, an outlying suburb of Rome, wins the consulship against the patrician Catiline. Cicero would go on to not only prevent Catiline from overthrowing the Senate, but also become one of the greatest orators in the history of Rome. -
After losing the consular election to Cicero, Catiline plots to overthrow the Roman Senate. In order to stop Catiline, Cicero uses all of his powers as consul, including his emergency powers. The liberal use of his emergency powers indirectly led to Caesar's dictatorship. The attempted coup is immortalized in Cicero's Catilinarian Orations (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0019:text=Catil.:speech=1:chapter=1)
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Beginning in 58 BCE, Caesar conducts an 8-year-long military campaign in Gaul (modern-day France, Germany, and the southeast part of Britain). The Gallic Wars are immortalized in Caesar's war journals, [de Bello Gallico]. (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0002) -
After returning from Gaul, Caesar starts a civil war with the Roman leadership, which ends in his becoming dictator for life. Although he provides much needed reform, the Senate was weary of Caesar's desire for power, and assassinated him shortly thereafter. Caesar's ascension was preceded by infighting among the Senate, as well as Cicero's manipulation of the rules of Roman governance. -
Shortly after Caesar’s death, Marc Antony deserts Rome to be with his love, Cleopatra. The Romans, led by Pompey and Lepidus, rout the Egyptian forces led by Marc Antony in a naval battle at Actium. -
From 0-200 CE, Rome enjoys a golden age known as Pax Romana (literally, “Peace of Rome”). The era begins with the reign of the first true Emperor of Rome, Augustus, and is generally believed to culminate with the reign of Marcus Aurelius. During this time, trade and influence extends all the way to the British Isles, North Africa beyond Egypt, and Persia.
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In 68 CE, Nero, the last of the Julio-Claudian Emperors, committed suicide after being declared an enemy of the state by the Senate. This incited a yearlong power vacuum in which four different leaders, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian, declared themselves Emperor. After a year of war, Vespasian, the last one standing, continued his reign. The people of Rome, who suffered through uncertainty during Nero's reign, continued to wade through it in civil war. -
Vespasian, one of the Flavian Emperors, began constructing the Colosseum in the final year of his reign, 72CE. His heir, the benevolent Titus, completes the structure, which still stands today, in 80CE. -
Under the rule of Trajan, The Roman Empire extends from just south of Scotland to the Persian Gulf. Through hundreds of various ethnic groups and languages, all of this territory was united by Latin and minted coins. -
Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius, is assassinated after a disastrous reign as Emperor. Some historians consider his assassination the beginning of the end for the Western Roman Empire.
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In 330, the Roman Emperor Constantine founds Constantinople on the site of the Greek city of Byzantium. Once also known as Novus Romo, Constantinople intended it to be the new capital of the Roman Empire. The founding of Constantinople serves as another death knell for the Western Roman Empire. From Constantine's arrival to the Ottoman's conquest in 1453, the "City of Constantine" served as the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire.
