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Tsar of all Russia 1682-1721, Emperor of All Russia 1721-1725
Build st Petersburg in 1706 and named the city after himself.
The tsar did not have any restrictions by other people or the law, only god could tell him what and what not to do. -
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Founded in 1867 as a compromise between two crowns to prevent more conflicts. They only had two emperors. Franz Joseph the 1st and Franz Ferdinand who was killed in Sarajevo in 1940. Ethic groups of Austria-Hungary
Germans
Hungarians
Checz
Slovaks
Poles
Ukrainians
Slovenes
Croats, Serbians
Romanians
Italians
Austria-Hungary never had any colonies. -
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Prussia and the French were at war during the 1860s (until 1871) and France lost which resulted in Germany’s creation (1871) and became Europe’s most powerful industrial nation.
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Wilhelm I (1871-1888)
Freidrich Wilhelm (1888)
Wilhelm II (1888-1918) -
→ lost their last colonies in caribbean
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Bolsheviks (under Lenin) - favored a revolution but led by professional revolutionaries
Mensheviks - who demanded reforms instead because they believed Russia was not ready for a revolution
Everything happened in the political centre of St Petersburg -
It all began when the people had a demonstration for better rights and a petition against the Tsar and was walking towards where the Tsar Nicholas II was sitting and the military soldiers started shooting at the demonstrators, killing 400 people.
After this the Tsar
Indtroduce civil liberties
Duma - the Russian Parliement
Had the power to dismiss the Duma at all times -
Nicholas promised civil liberties, broad participation in the new parliament, DUMA 2 house parliament
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Ottoman Empire vs Balkan LeagueBelgium (Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, Montenegro)
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Bulgaria vs Serbia, Romania, Greece, Montenegro, Ottoman Empire
The first time in war when machines were heavily used to kill. -
June 28th, 1914: Arch Duke Franz Ferdinand assassinated in Sarajevo
The black hand was a Serbian secret military group that supported terrorist methods for freeing Serbia
Black Hand secret Serbian society of the early 20th century that used terrorist methods to promote the liberation of Serbs outside Serbia from Habsburg or Ottoman rule and was instrumental in planning the assassination of the Austrian archduke Franz Ferdinand (1914), precipitating the outbreak of World War I -
Baron Giesl von Gieslingen, ambassador of the Austro-Hungarian Empire to Serbia, delivers an ultimatum to the Serbian foreign ministry. The ultimatum is that ?
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stopped unrestricted submarine warfare
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everything was turnip
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February: provisional government formed by DUMA and soviets -diarchy. Duma stood against the Tsar for the first time when he wanted to dissolve the Government and instead formed a provisional government to take over the people and the army
By the end of the month there was mutiny
Soviets - workers and soldiers council
Soviet (the major power) - supports provisional government
Duma (the minor power) - forms the provisional government. -
Lenin and Bolsheviks stage a coup to take control of the winter palace + gov’t buildings
Coup against the provisional government
Bolsheviks take power
The october revolution was not a real revolution but actually a coup. -
The foreign secretary of Germany - sent a telegram on 16th January 1917 to the German ambassador in DC. The telegram stated that in the event of war with the US, Mexico would be asked to join Germany against the US, and in turn they would assist Mexico in getting back Texas, New Mexico and Arizona. This telegram was used as an official reason to join the war. The letter was released to the press on March 1st 1917. This was the ‘propaganda reason’
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End the war
All land to the peasants
All power to the soviets -
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Broke out during the October revolution and then again in 1918. It was between the bolshoviks (the reds) and the anti-bolshovisks (the whites). The whites were supported by the UK, USA, France and Canada.The bolsheviks could resist and win the civil war:
Disagreement and enmity of the different opponents
Military faults of the whites
Cooperation with foreign forces was against a russian patriotism and cost the whites public support
Fear of the peasants of the cancellation of agricultural reforms -
The Spanish Flu 1918-1920 was a pandemic that came after the first war ended. It came out of nowhere and left out of nowhere. 50-100 million people died and 500 million were infected.
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Private enterprise became illegal
Centralizsation of the economy
Provide the red army
Bureaucratization and militarization of the economy
Force and terror
Food was rationed -
1922-1939: the rise of right-wing dictatorships
1918: France + Britain owed US 7billion
1919-1933: Republic of Weimar
→ 3 phases 1919-1923 (crisis) 1924-1929 (stabilization) 1929-1933 (the fall) -
A peace treaty between the Central Powers & Russia.Was made as the Russians wanted to end WWI as this was one of the promises Lenin had made to the Russian citizens and soldiers. He claimed that the communist party would end the war against Germany. However, as Russia wasn’t in a great position they had to give up more land to Germany than they wanted and a lot more people but Lenin still wanted to keep his word. When the Germans later surrendered the Russians acted like there was no treaty.
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Germans were forced to sign the unconditional surrender. It was signed by the politicians of the country and not the general or the Keiser. It ended on the 11th Day of the 11th hour of the 11th month.
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→ fight for Ukraine + established Russian Poland border
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→ 3 phases 1919-1923 (crisis) 1924-1929 (stabilization) 1929-1933 (the fall)
Federal republic
Official name: Deutsches Reich
Parliamentary system with president and chancellor
Capital: berlin
18 provinces (1925) + saar region
Named after the city of Weimar, where the first constituent assembly took place
Two legislative bodies: Reichstag (parliament) reichsrat (appointed by the german provinces) -
hyperinflation
Republic supported by the social democrats, catholic Zentrum party and moderate liberals
Communists and national socialists are fighting against the republic
From 1930 on right-wing governments supported by liberals and Zentrum party, they ruled with emergency decrees
Reich-president von Hindenburg supports the right-wing and nationalist governments
NSDAP never gets a majority in democratic elections. -
Rise of the movement and struggle for power 1919-1922
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Crucial treaty which helped shape WW2
Germany, Russia, Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary were not invited
The Big Four attended - British Prime Minister David Lloyd George
-Between Germany and the allied powers, June 28th 1919
-Formally ended the first world war
-Included the league of nations -
-Between the Republic of Austria and the allied powers, Sep 10 1919
-Declared the Austria-Hungarian monarchy dissolved
-Recognized the independence of former AH parts, Hungary, -Czechoslovakia, Poland, Austria, Yugoslavia - had to give some parts to Italy and Romania
-An article directly stated that Austria was not allowed to unite with Germany and they were only allowed 30.000 volunteers in their army -
Between the Kingdom of Bulgaria and the allied powers, nov 27 1919
Parts of Bulgaria became part of Romania and Yugoslavia -
Between the Ottoman Empire and allied powers
League of Nations (Britain and France) made decisions about Turkey and surrounding countries -
Between Hungary and the allied powers, June 4 1920
Size and population of Hungary was downsized in about ⅔ of the population in areas where people didn’t speak Magyar
Hungary also lost its access to the sea and some of its natural resources
Army reduced to 35.000 -
→ party only had 35/500 seats
→ changed name to Partito Nazionale Fascita -
Small private enterprise
Farmers markets and bazaars
State controls banks, foreign trade, large industries
Cooperative farming
Tax in kind
Re-opening of churches and mosques
Currency reform -
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set up of government
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Fascists marched into Rome “all over the country” which was propaganda. This is what ended the Monarchy in Italy. In 1924 the fascists had over 60% of the seats in the government.
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here he writes mein kampf
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National and international normalization agreement and recognition 1926-1936
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Pacts between the church and the kingdom of Italy and Mussolini
Section 1- treaty of conciliation: established the Vatican City as an independent state, restoring the civil sovereignty of the Pope as a monarch
Section 2- financial convention: annexed to the treaty which compensated the Holy See for loss of the papal states
Section 3- the concordat: dealt with the Roman Catholic Church’s eccöesiastical relations with the Italian states
The roman catholic religion was the only one allowed in Italy -
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focused on reforms and formed by many groups
Main reforms:
Army reforms
Agrarian reforms
Separation of church and state
Regional autonomy
One of these was enough to create a crisis and they did all at once. -
provisional government. constitution reform of 1931
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Created and ruled by Jose Antonio Primo de Rivera, son of Miguel Primo de Rivera.Inspired by Italian corporativismo and mussolini. Was never as strong as the fascist parties in Italy or germany. The major change happened with Franco after the civil war. Corporate state in which class struggle would be superseded by the Sindicato Nacional, joining workers and owners; Roman Catholicism; Attention to Castilian farmers; Pride in the history of the Spanish Empire; Anti-communism and anti-anarchism
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A young communist man was sentenced for starting a fire at the Reichstag building and was executed for it. This incident was used by Hitler as evidence that communists were trying to take over the government.
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Used as the legal basis for the imprisonment of anyone who could be a threat to the nazi government. The law according to the constitution of the german weimar republic enabled the government to rule by decree without parliamentary content in cases of emergency. This became the legal foundation of Hitler’s assumption of dictatorial power during the third reich.
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A day organized to bring together the ‘old’ and ‘new’ Germany as a way to spread propaganda through the media. Both Hitler and President Paul von Hinderburg were there.
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reactionary catholic-conservative majority, reset of reforms
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There were too many groups at once around Hitler (SA, SS, German Army, the Industry) and cut away the SA and Röhm very abruptly. Hitler arrested Röhm for conspiracy against the government and forced to kill himself, which he didn’t want to do so they shot him. Röhm was also openly gay which Hitler had not had an issue with, yet he blamed this as one of the resons for his execution.
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Party convention for freedom - September 15th 1934
Law for the protection of German blood and honor
Reich citizen law (took away citizenship from jews)
Forbidden for jews to marry outside their religion
Could not call themselves German
Could not have non jews work for them -
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prpular front government, renewal of reforms
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Started with a military coup by the africanistas (african-spanish soldiers) against the government. Vidal was the brain of the revolt and an africanista - made the plans which were to start in the north and go to the center, also to kill anyone who did not support the revolt. Franco supposed to come from the south to the centre.
Franco met with hitler who gave him troops in Africa and sent them so they could go through with the coup. -
Radicalization, imperialism and coalition with Germany 1936-1943
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Jose Sanjurjo Sacanell, Emilio Mola Vidal, Francisco Franco Bahamonde
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Leaves Franco in charge
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republic learned no country would help them
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Attempt to survive in the Publica Sociale Italiana 1943-1945
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His body was displayed publicly