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Many historians cite this date as the beginning of the Renaissance.
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The Papacy, having been located in Avignon since 1305, returns to Rome, bringing with it the prestige and wealth necessary to rebuild the city.
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Cosimo de Medici becomes head of the bank after his father dies, using his economic power to consolidate political power. Within five years he runs the city without question.
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Pope Nicholas V takes the first steps toward turning Rome into a Renaissance city, undertaking many construction projects and strongly encouraging the arts.
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After Cosimo's death in 1464, his son Piero rules until his death in 1469, when power falls into the hands of Lorenzo, who rules until 1491, raising Florence to its greatest heights of the Renaissance.
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Pico's philosophy often conflicts with that of the Catholic Church and he is declared a heretic. He is saved from demise by the intervention of Lorenzo de Medici.
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Spanish monarchs fund Christopher Columbus’s voyage; aims to find spices and gold in Asia, but actually lands in Caribbean
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Pope divides New World between Spain, Portugal
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Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama reaches India by going around Africa; spice trade to the East by sea begins
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Luther posts his ninety-five theses (complaints about church’s sale of indulgences) on door of church at Wittenberg
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Ferdinand Magellan (Portugal) circumnavigates world
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Augsburg Confession makes Luther’s break with church permanent, founds Lutheran Church
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Francisco Pizarro (Spain) conquers Inca in Peru
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Ignatius of Loyola founds Society of Jesus (Jesuits), who preach and teach worldwide to promote Catholicism
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Peace of Augsburg lets German princes decide on religion of their states; Holy Roman Empire thus divides between Lutherans, Catholics; Calvinists, Anabaptists not recognized
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Nobles revolt against royal authority in conflict called the Fronde
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Peter I “the Great” expands Russia; struggles against nobles (boyars); controls Orthodox Church; encourages service to state with Table of Ranks; builds new capital, St. Petersburg; introduces Western ideas, dress, culture
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King John III Sobieski of Poland prevents Ottoman Empire from capturing Habsburg capital, Vienna
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John Toland (English, 1670–1722) sets forth deist outlook of God as divine watchmaker
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Protestant monarchy plays important role in Thirty Years’ War, fights Great Northern War against Russia under leadership of Charles XII
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Louis XV ineffective, less popular; monarchy no longer considered sacred
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First volume of The Encyclopedia by Denis Diderot and others shares knowledge of science, crafts, ideas
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Voltaire (French, 1694–1778) criticizes Catholicism in Candide
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Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Swiss-French, 1712–1778) promotes democracy, personal freedom under the law in The Social Contract
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Catherine II “the Great” (r. 1762–1796) establishes schools for nobles, printing presses, clarifies nobility’s rights; but also imprisons opponents, maintains censorship and serfdom
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Mary Wollstonecraft (English, 1759–1797) argues for women’s rights in A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
