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The Social Contract
Rousseau, a contemporary of Voltaire, expanded on the idea of the social contract. In 1762 Rousseau laid out his ideas on child-rearing and education in Emile, or On Education. Another work, The Social Contract, presented the concept of the General Will of a population and the obligation of a sovereign to carry out that General Will. Rousseau inspired many revolutionaries of the late 18th century. -
Watt's Steam Engine
The version of the steam engine made by James Watt in 1765 provided an inexpensive way to harness the power of coal to create steam, which in turn generated energy for machinery in textile factories. -
Water Frame invented
The water frame, patented by Richard Arkwright in 1769, doomed the household textile cottage industry, as textile production was moved to factories. Consequently, Arkwright was considered the father of the factory system. -
Spinning Jenny invented
The spinning jenny, created by James Hargreaves in the 1760s, reduced the time needed to spin yarn and weave cloth. -
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American Revolution
With economic and political desires for independence grew a new social spirit. The colonists triumphed over the British in 1783 with the help of the French. -
Thomas Paine Common Sense
Though Paine was popular in America for advocating liberty from Britain, his anti-church writings significantly damaged his popularity. His breakthrough novel, Common Sense, was published in 1776. -
The Wealth of Nations
The Wealth of Nations was published in 1776 by Adam Smith. In this book, he criticized mercantilism and called for free trade. His ideas served as a base for capitalism. -
Declaration of Independence
The Declaration of Independence, signed on July 4, 1776, expressed the philosophy behind the colonists’ fight for independence. -
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Australia becomes a penal colony
After the loss of its American colonies, Britain began to consider the possibility of establishing various kinds of settlements in Australia, finally deciding to locate a penal colony there. In 1788 the first convicts, along with some free settlers, arrived in Australia, and the east coast became known as New South Wales. In the 1820s, Britain took possession of the entire continent. -
The Storming of the Bastille
On July 14, 1789, a crowd in Paris stormed the Bastille. In the French countryside, peasants revolted against nobles, and some royal officials fled France. The king was forced to accept a new government with a National Assembly in charge. -
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French Revolution
In the 1780s, revolutionary ideals took on their spin. July 14, 1789, became French Independence Day. The most permanent changes were enacted early in the rebellion - the abolition of feudalism and the adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man. The First French Republic was established in 1792. -
Toussaint L'Ouverture joins Haitian Revolts
The examples of the recent American and French revolutions led formerly enslaved Toussaint L’Ouverture to join the revolts in 1791 and then to lead a general rebellion against slavery. His army of enslaved Africans and Maroons established an independent government and played the French, Spanish, and British against each other. -
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Haitian Revolution
At the end of the 18th century, the rebellion began when enslaved Africans killed their masters and burned their homes. In 1801, after taking control of the territory that would become the independent country of Haiti, Toussaint L’Ouverture produced a constitution that granted equality and citizenship to all residents. In 1804, L’Ouverture’s successor orchestrated a Haitian declaration of permanent independence. -
Wollstonecraft A Vindication of the Rights of Women
In 1792 Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Women was published. In this novel, the author argued that females should receive the same education as men. She argued that universal education would prepare women to participate in a political and professional society. Her goal was for women to gain the same rights and abilities as men. -
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Reign of Terror
The Reign of Terror was a period during which the government executed thousands of opponents of the revolution, including the king and queen. -
VOC bankrupt
The spice trade was very profitable, but corruption caused the company to go bankrupt by 1800. Once the VOC folded, the Dutch government itself took control of the Dutch East Indies. -
Napoleon becomes Emperor
After a period of turmoil and war, Napoleon Bonaparte became emperor of France in 1804. -
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Latin Revolution
Creoles opposed Spain's mercantilism and wanted more political power. They continued to push for enlightenment ideals in Latin America. -
Bolivar’s “Jamaica Letter”
In 1815 Simón Bolívar, who believed in a free market and the abolition of slavery, wrote out his goals and concerns for Latin America. -
Indian Removal Act
The Cherokee and other Southeast Native American tribes were forced to relocate to what is now Oklahoma after Congress passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830 -
Ottoman abolish feudal system
Sultan Mahmud II abolished the feudal system in 1831, marking the final defeat of the corps of Janissaries, who opposed him. -
French seize Algeria
France drove the Ottomans out of Algeria in 1830. France formally annexed Algeria as a military colony in 1834. By 1870 Algeria became a settler colony. -
The Annexation of New Zealand
The New Zealand Wars, a series of conflicts between the Maori and British, took place after pressure from the English for land, which resulted from the Annexation of New Zealand in 1840. -
Communist Manifesto
In 1848, Karl Marx and his supporter Friedrich Engels published what is known today as the Communist Manifesto. According to Marx, capitalism was an advance on feudalism because it produced wealth, but it also produced misery and poverty. -
Seneca Falls Convention
In 1848 activists gathered to promote women’s rights and suffrage in Seneca Falls, New York. Organizers demanded women deserved the right to vote, hold office, hold property, manage their income, and be the legal guardians of their children. This was a turning point in the history of the women’s rights movement. -
Unification of Italy
In 1858 Count di Cavour maneuvered Napoleon III of France into a war with Austria to weaken Austrian influence on the Italian Peninsula. After winning two important battles, Napoleon III backed out of the war. Soon, several areas voted by popular referendum to join the Kingdom of Sardinia. Unfortunately, unification did not solve Italy’s poverty, leading to considerable emigration in the late nineteenth century. -
Russia ends Serfdom
Tsar Alexander II, known as Alexander the Liberator, emancipated Russia’s serfs in 1861. The Emancipation Reform of 1861 effectively abolished serfdom throughout the Russian Empire. -
Abolition of Slavery (US)
The 13th Amendment officially abolished slavery throughout the United States. Unfortunately, discrimination against black people continued for years, and protections remained minimal. -
Alaska sold to America
The United States bought Alaska from Russia in 1867. -
Meiji Restoration
Japanese Reformers, who believed the country should adopt Western technology and methods, overthrew the shogun and restored power to the emperor in 1868. -
Transcontinental Railroad completed
The first transcontinental railroad was completed in Utah in 1869. -
Unification of Germany
In Germany, nationalist movements strengthened as a result of opposition to the French occupation of German states under Napoleon Bonaparte. Following the Congress of Vienna, which settled the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, revolutions occurred in several European states. The revolutions of 1848 were the result of both nationalism and liberalism. In 1871, Otto von Bismarck founded the new German Empire. -
Patent for the telephone
A patent for the telephone was issued to Alexander Graham Bell in 1876. -
1st Public Power
In 1880 the first public power utility was born in Wabash, Indiana. -
British seize Egypt
When the unrest in Egypt threatened British commercial interests and the operation of the Suez Canal in 1882, Britain seized control of Egypt away from the Ottoman Empire. -
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Berlin Conference
Otto von Bismarck hosted the Berlin Conference in 1884-1885 to provide for the orderly colonization of Africa. -
Abolition of Slavery (Brazil)
During the first half of the 1880s, abolitionist organizations spread against the country. Resistance to slavery gradually grew until the government had no choice but to respond. Brazil was the last country in the west to abolish slavery. -
Unilever Corp
The Unilever Corporation was a British and Dutch venture focused on household goods. By 1890, it had soap factories in Australia, Switzerland, the United States, and beyond. -
Spanish-American War
The U.S. victory in the Spanish-American War in 1898 brought Guam, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines under U.S. control. -
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Chinese become a Republic (slightly out of scope)
After over two thousand years of imperial rule, a republic was established to replace the monarchy.