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Early in Napoleon's military career, he launched a campaign in Italy from 1796 to 1797. He conquered most of Northern Italy for France and developed a taste for governing.
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Also early in his military career, Napoleon launched a campaign in Egypt. Here, during the Battle of the Nile, he was defeated by the British Navy under Horatio Nelson. Napoleon then abandoned his troops and returned to France, hiding the stories of his defeat, and receiving a hero’s welcome.
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Napoleon launched a coup d’ etat on Nov. 9, 1799. As a result, a three man governing board known as the Consulate was created. The Consulate successfully took the place of the previous weak directory.
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Napoleon established the Banque de France in an attempt to reorganize the economy. He successfully stabilized the French economy, which was struggling as a result of France’s massive debt due to funding the American Revolution.
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In order to heal the divisions with the Catholic Church that had occurred previously, Napoleon passed the Concordat of 1801. This kept the church under state control but recognized religious freedom for the Catholics. It became clear that his intent with the Concordat was to use the clergy to prop up his own regime. Even then, Catholics welcomed it, and revolutionaries who opposed the church denounced the agreement.
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After his success in declaring himself “First Consul”, Napoleon declared himself “Consul for Life”. This allowed him to acquire enough power to declare himself emperor.
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After declaring himself “Consul for Life”, Napoleon took the title Emperor of the French, not king, as he felt that kings were commonplace. He did this by placing the crown on his own head during his lavish and ostentatious coronation. Napoleon's coronation was seen as merely a demonstration of his power and many were unimpressed. As an emperor he was very strongly supported because of his social and economic reforms. However, many wars occurred during his rule, called the Napoleonic Wars.
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One of Napoleon's most long lasting reforms was the Napoleonic code. This was a code of laws that was meant to reform the French legal code to reflect the principles of the French Revolution. It established equality of citizens before the law, religious toleration, and called for the abolition of feudalism. It also undid some reforms that were created during the Revolution, especially for women.
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With Britain being the only major European power outside of Napoleon's empire, he decided to invade England. The battle was fought off the southwest coast of Spain. The French Navy was defeated by British Admiral Horatio Nelson.
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Set up by the Berlin Decrees, the Continental System closed European ports to British goods in order to isolate Britain, who then responded with its own blockade. In the end, the Continental System failed to do that. British exports did decline, but vital trade routes were kept open by its strong navy. Trade restrictions created a scarcity of goods in Europe, which made prices and resentment against French power soar.
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In creating a vast French Empire, Napoleon abolished the tottering Holy Roman Empire. This expanded the French empire further and led to Napoleon controlling a large part of Europe.
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Napoleon proclaimed his brother the new king of Spain. He also introduced reforms to undermine the Spanish Catholic Church. Many Spaniards remained loyal to their former king and the church. On May 2nd (Dos de Mayo), the Spanish rebelled. The French responded with brutal repression, which inflamed Spanish nationalism. A campaign of guerrilla warfare then kept large numbers of French soldiers in Spain when they were needed elsewhere. In the end the french were forced out of Spain.
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When Tsar Alexander I of Russia withdrew his support from the Continental System, Napoleon assembled an army, known as the Grand Army. He then invaded Russia. The Russians retreated east, burning crops and villages as they went. This left the French cold and hungry as winter came. Once they reached Moscow, they retreated, but few soldiers survived the harsh conditions of the 1,000-mile trip. Napoleon's reputation for success was shattered.
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Russia, Britain, Austria, and Prussia formed an alliance against the weakened France. France was defeated in the Battle of Nations at Leipzig.
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With allied forces occupying Paris, Napoleon was forced to step down from power. He was forced to sign the Treaty of Fontainebleau, which exiled him to Elba, a Mediterranean island. Napoleon was no longer the Emperor and Louis XVIII was named the king of France instead.
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While Louis XVIII was on the throne, an economic depression and fear of the return of the old regime rekindled loyalty for Napoleon. He escaped from Elba while the allies were having a peace conference in Vienna. He was cheered on by citizens upon his arrival and Louis XVIII fled. Napoleon's triumph only lasted 100 days, while the allies reassembled their forces.
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During Napoleon's 100 Days, the allies reassembled their forces. On June 18, 1815, the opposing armies met at Waterloo in Belgium. The French were defeated and Napoleon was once again forced to Abdicate, this time, to the South Atlantic island of St. Helena.
