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Montesquieu publishes book, On the Spirit of Laws
An influential French writer, Baron de Montesquieu, believed that Britain was the best governed in his own day. The king and his ministers held executive power, and they carried out the laws of the state. The members of the Parliament held legislative power, and they made the laws. The judges of the courts held judicial power, and they interpreted the laws. Montesquieu called this division of powers "separation of powers," and communicated this idea in his book, On the Spirit of Laws. -
America declares independence
In July 1776, the Second Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence, which was written by Thomas Jefferson. This document was firmly based on the ideas of John Locke and the Enlightenment, by stating their inalienable rights and the assertion that since the people had the right to rebel against an unjust ruler. The Declaration also listed all of the King's abuses. -
French Revolution
In the 1770s, the Old Regime (the social and political system of France) remained in place. Under this system, the people of France were divided into three separate social classes (estates). Although the vast majority of the population belonged to the Third Estate (97%), this estate had the least amount of privileges. were heavily taxed, and felt an overall sense of inequality. This, along with the spread of Enlightenment ideas, economic troubles, and a weak ruler led to the French Revolution. -
Napoleon overthrows the Directory through a coup d’etat
By 1799, the Directory had lost virtually all of its power and control. After Napoleon returned from Egypt and convinced everyone of his victory, his friends urged him to seize control of the government. In November, Napoleon's troops drove out most of the national legislature's members by force, and those who remained voted to dissolve the Directory, replacing it with a group of three consuls. Napoleon immediately took the role of first consul and assumed the role of dictator of France. -
Haiti wins freedom from France
A formerly enslaved general, Toussaint L'Ouverture, emerged as a strong revolutionary leader in Saint Domingue (now Haiti). By 1801, he had taken control of Haiti and freed all slaves. In 1802, French troops exiled him to a prison in the Alps after accusing him of another uprising, where he died shortly after. Toussaint's lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, took up the fight for freedom and declared Haiti independent in 1804. -
Napoleon crowns himself emperor, begins to create a vast European Empire
At the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, Napoleon took the crown from pope and placed it on his own head, signaling that he was more powerful than the Church. Napoleon began immediately conquering nations for his Empire, wishing to control the rest of Europe and the Americas. After failing to conquer Saint Domingue in the New World, Napoleon turned his attention to Europe. By 1812, the only areas in Europe free from Napoleon's control were Britain, Portugal, Sweden, and the Ottomon Empire. -
Padre Hidalgo calls for Mexican Independence
Miguel Hidalgo, a priest in the small village of Dolores, was a poor but well-educated man who firmly believed in Enlightenment ideals. Hidalgo rang the bells of his village church to gather all the peasants and to issue a call for rebellion against the Spanish. This call is known today as the "grito de Dolores" (the cry of Dolores). -
Napoleon is defeated at the Battle of Waterloo
After hearing of King Louis XVIII's troubles with the French people, Napoleon escaped from the island of Elba (where he was exiled to) and landed in France. Within days, Napoleon was emperor again. In response, the British prepared for battle near the village of Waterloo in Belgium. Napoleon attacked, and later the Prussian army arrived to aid the British. Napoleon's army gave way to the combined British and Prussian forces, ending Napoleon's last bid for power.
