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Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
This landmark Supreme Court case declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional. While it primarily addressed racial issues, it laid the groundwork for inclusive education by emphasizing equal access to education for all. The decision later influenced laws related to the rights of students with disabilities and other marginalized groups. -
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) - 1965
ESEA was a major federal law aimed at closing the achievement gap for disadvantaged children. It provided funding to schools serving low-income students and established a commitment to equal access to education. Over the years, it has been reauthorized and evolved into policies like No Child Left Behind and the Every Student Succeeds Act. -
PARC (1971)
Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Citizens (PARC) v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (1971) This federal court case declared that children with intellectual disabilities could not be denied public education. PARC sued the state of Pennsylvania to ensure children with disabilities received equal access to free education. This victory paved the way for national laws like the Education for All Handicapped Children Act. -
Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia
This case expanded the scope of the PARC ruling by protecting all children with disabilities, not just those with intellectual challenges. The court emphasized that lack of funding was not an excuse for failing to educate disabled students. Mills laid critical groundwork for future federal mandates like IDEA. -
Education for All Handicapped Children Act (Public Law 94-142)
This federal law guaranteed a free, appropriate public education (FAPE) in the least restrictive environment (LRE) for all children with disabilities. It required schools to create individualized education programs (IEPs) tailored to students' needs. Watch a short video overview of IDEA here. -
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
The ADA is a sweeping civil rights law that prohibits discrimination based on disability in public and private settings. For schools, it requires accessible buildings, materials, and services, impacting everything from classroom design to website accessibility. It expanded the concept of equal rights to the realm of public education. -
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Reauthorization
The 1997 reauthorization of IDEA emphasized inclusion in general education classrooms and clarified the role of the IEP team. It also introduced requirements for behavioral support plans and transition services. These provisions helped ensure students with disabilities received more holistic and integrated support. -
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act
President George W. Bush signed this law to raise accountability in U.S. public schools. NCLB emphasized standardized testing and required disaggregation of data to track the performance of all student groups, including students with disabilities. Although controversial, it revealed achievement gaps and pushed schools toward greater inclusion. -
Assistive Technology Act
The Assistive Technology Act of 2004 supports programs that help individuals with disabilities access and acquire assistive technology (AT) tools. These tools range from high-tech devices like speech-generating software to low-tech aids like pencil grips and large-print books. The law funds state-level programs that offer training. Assistive Technology Act -
Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)
ESSA replaced No Child Left Behind and gave states more flexibility in setting educational goals. While maintaining accountability for subgroups, including students with disabilities, it allowed states to develop their own testing and intervention systems. For more information, visit the U.S. Department of Education's ESSA overview.