Europe 1648-1992: A History of Different Theories of the State

Europe: 1648-1992

Period: Oct 24, 1648 to Feb 7, 1992

The time period in question begins with the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, ending the Thirty Years' War and beginning the period of the sovereign state system in Europe. The time period ends with the signing of the Treaty of Maastricht in 1992, which helped form much of the current European Union. This timeline in specific covers major theories and intellectual works during this time period and briefly explains their influence on important events and processes in European history.

Thomas Hobbes Publishes Leviathan. Image from cover of original 1651 publication in Britain. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. C. B Macpherson (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968).

1651

Thomas Hobbes, a British intellectual and writing after the English Civil War, argued in Leviathan (1651) for an absolute ruler to end humanity's warlike natural state. The above frontispiece to the original publication shows the ruler shielding his commonwealth and gaining power from the citizens 'inside' him. Leviathan is significant because it outlined tenets of absolutist governance, such as centralized state power and mercantilist economics, that rulers like Louis XIV implemented.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau Publishes The Social Contract. Quotation taken from Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract (NY: Simon and Schuster, 1967), 28.

1762

In 1762, during the Enlightenment, political theorist Jean-Jacques Rousseau published The Social Contract in France. As seen in the quote above (1967 edition, written 1762), Rousseau argues that sovereignty originates from the "body of the people" and general will, so deviations from these phenomena are illegitimate. This is significant because revolutionaries during the French Revolution used these notions as justification to rebel, and they followed Rousseau's principles throughout the revolt.

Benjamin Constant Gives "The Liberty of Ancients" Speech. Portrait taken from Simon Schama, "Who Speaks for the People?" Financial Times, 2019. Benjamin Constant, "The Liberty of Ancients Compared with that of Moderns" (Cambridge: CU Press, 1819).

1819

In 1819, French politician and theorist Benjamin Constant gave his "Liberty of Ancients" speech at the Royal Athenaeum of Paris. In it, he argues that modern men have a "love of individual independence" (1819 translation, 315) and that the State should not interfere in people's private lives or their economic activity. It is significant because its laissez-faire ideas influenced European statesmen, especially those in Britain, to usher in an era of free trade and lower economic intervention.

Benito Mussolini and Giovanni Gentile Write "The Doctrine of Fascism." Image: Flag of Italian National Fascist Party, public domain. Giovanni Gentile and Benito Mussolini, “The Doctrine of Fascism” (San Jose: SJ State University, 1932).

1932

In 1932, political theorist Giovanni Gentile and statesman Benito Mussolini published "The Doctrine of Fascism" in Italy, arguing that the State should drive national strength - the Lictor's rods in the flag represent this - and "dwell in the heart of ... man" (1932 translation, 3). It is significant because the acceptance of its ultranationalism by those suffering from the post-WWI and Great Depression societal collapse led to the growth of Fascist movements, territorial expansion, and WWII.