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Social: Carnival
Carnival was a time of reveling and excess. It preceded Lent. There was drinking, masquerading, and dancing. Social roles were switched. Blood sports such as bullfighting and cockfighting. -
Family: Large Generational Families and Early Marriage Patterns
Late marriages were common at this time because couples wished to gather wealth before marrying. People waited until they had enough money saved up to support a family. At this time large, multi-generational families were living under the same roof. -
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Social: How Transportation Changed
In early transportation most people walked except for the very wealthy who had carriages. Cities began to have simple horse-drawn trams for further distances. When cities got bigger urban planners began to use trams on rails that were drawn by horses and eventually electric streetcars. The wealthy continued to use horse-drawn carriages. With the inventions of the Industrial Revolution trains began to be used widely as a cheap method of overland transportation. -
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Family: Illegitimacy Explosion
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Family: Community Controls
During this time period many communities forced a couple to marry if they were expecting a child. There was a large amount of pregnant brides. The community also degraded and humiliated spouse-beaters and adulterers by parading them around the streets on a donkey's back and yelling their crimes. They also would visit their house at night and serenade them with obnoxious and rude songs. -
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Family: Wet Nursing
Wet Nursing was a common practice of the Middle and Upper classes. Mothers would give their infants to nurses who would take care of them until they were about three years old. After that they would be brought back home. This allowed mothers more free time and also increased fertility Wet Nursing was so common that it was even regulated by the French government. The downside of Wet Nursing was that many infants died under the care of Wet Nurses. -
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Economics: Leaving Home for Work
Starting a bit before 1750 people began to leave home to look for work. Boys became apprentices to guild-masters and girls became housekeeping and midwife apprentices. Poor families' children who could not afford apprenticeships became part of the unskilled laborers. -
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Intellectual: Medicine
Physicians, medical practitioners, and midwives became more willing to try different methods. Madame du Coudray began to instruct midwives and wrote several books on midwifery. In 1796 Edward Jenner performed the first smallpox vaccination on a boy using tissue from a maid infected with cowpox. -
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Intellectual: Education
This era saw a large rise in literacy rates. More schools began to form and these schools were often started by a religious group such as the Jesuits. Religious competition led to a rise in schools. Many religions saw that they could teach followers better if they could read. Many Protestant countries such as Scotland made primary education mandatory. -
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Social: Larger Working Class developed
More people began to work in factories with others as the Industrial Revolution continued. Before this, people usually worked at home as a part of the cottage industry and the putting-out system. Some of the downsides of this included: discrimination in work, lower wages, and poor working conditions. -
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Social: Romanticism
Was a ideology that believed in the awesome power of nature, unrestrained imagination, and spontaneity in life. Had new styles of music, poetry, literature, and art that flowed and had an aura of mystery. -
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Intellectual: Early Industrial Revolution Inventions.
During the early industrial revolution canals were built to power Watermills and to provide transportation. Spinning Jenny's and water frames were the early machines that made the textile industry more productive. Thomas Savery and Thomas Newcomen created primitive steam engines which would be refined by James Watt in 1769. By the 1780's Henry Cort created the puddling furnace which allowed pig iron to be refined with cork. Next, George Stephenson built an effective locomotive in 1825. -
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Social: Large Groups of People Began to Move to Cities
People began to move to cities where there was more appeal to social interaction: theaters, bars/taverns, music etc. Cities also offered better job security. This caused many major cities to undergo a series of changes known as Urban Planning. -
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Cultural: Diet and Nutrition
Men and women depended on grain and bread was a staple food. Peasants ate about two pounds of bread a day and ate very little meat. The common people ate meat and eggs. The rich ate rich meat and fish dishes along with expensive sauces, nuts, cheeses, meats, fishes, and sweets. The rich would spend five or more hours at the dinner-table. -
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Cultural: Religious Changes
The 19th century was an age of religious revival. There was a variety of religions in the lower classes mainly Christian Denominations. -
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Cultural: Nationalism
Many countries began taking large amounts of pride based on common language, religion, customs, and location. -
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Economics: The Iron Law of Wages
David Ricardo's Iron Law of Wages stated that wages would remain at subsistence level because of the pressure of population growth. -
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Economics: Tariff Protection
Governments decided to protect their manufactured goods by making tariffs on foreign goods. This worked well with England and their Colonel Empire. Prussia used Tariffs to help build its railroad. -
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Intellectual: Changing Ideologies
After 1815 a variety of ideologies arose. Socialism's main tenants included: economic planning, private property that is regulated by the government, and social organisation. Marxism was based largely off of French Utopian ideals, English Classical Economics, and German Philosophy. It stated that the Working Class would rise up against the Middle Class and seize control. Romanticism was based on the awesome power of nature, the freedom of imagination, and the unpredictability of life. -
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Family: Socialist views on Marriage
Some Socialists such as Charles Fourier believed that marriage was no better than prostitution. Wives were sold to husbands for dowries or status. He believed in unions based only on love and sexual freedom. -
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Intellectual: New Sciences
In the second half of the 19th century many new sciences began to develop. Thermodynamics, the study of heat energy became prevalent. Organic Chemistry, the study of carbon compounds also arose. In 1869 Dmitri Mendeleev created an early Periodic Table of the Elements. Auguste Comte created the "System of Positive Philosophy" which led to the Scientific Method. Most notably of all however was Charles Darwin's " On The Origin of Species". This book became very controversial. -
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Cultural: Fasion
Women's fashion was a large business in the 19th century. Many different social groups expressed themselves with different dress styles. Each social group worn lots of clothing and dressed modestly. The wealthy had rich. expensive dresses with lots of accessories. The common people and the peasants had plain dresses that were affordable. -
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Culture: Middle Class Customs
The middle class kept servants. They did many household chores. The more servants the higher the social standing. The middle class began to hold a variety of jobs. -
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Economics: Banks and Banking
Banks began to play a more crucial role. They began to become more public. Private banks became more conservative because of risk of financial loss. Banks made money off of interest and helped to build many of the railroads.