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Alexander II becomes Tsar
Ts. Alexander II ascends the throne to replaces his father Ts. Nicholas I after Russia had been defeated in the Crimean War.
Ts. Alexander II had taken over some government responsibilities during the Crimean War and had recognised the need for reform to ensure Russia did not continue to lag behind economically and socially to their Western counterparts. -
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Alexander II
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Treaty of Paris
The Treaty signed by Russia, Ottoman Empire, British Empire, Second French Empire and the Kingdom of Sardinia -
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Censorship Reforms
1863: Censorship was placed under the control of the Ministry for Internal Affairs
1865: The press and book publishers recieved a new codification of regulations which reduced some of the restrictions concerning publishing.
Foreign publications could be sold in Russia, with government approval
1865: The press was allowed to print editorials with comment on government policy for the first time
Pulbications could still be stopped and publishers fined but challenging was allowed by the legal system -
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Economic Reforms
Minister of Finance 1862-78: Mikhail Von Reutern
The Treasury was reformed with a new system for collecting taxes, setting budgets and auditing accounts was put in place
Tax farming was abolished
Banks and credit facilites were extended with the establishment of a state bank in 1860, municipal bank in 1862 and savings bank 1869
Foreign investment, industrial development and liberal trade policies were all encouraged and introduced -
Emancipation of the Serfs
Serf = A bonded labourer.
The decree allowed:
Serfs to marry, own property, set up businesses, travel and have legal rights
Non-domestic serfs were entitled to keep their cottages and land
Peasants had to pay redemption payments for the land and could not migrate until they were fully paid -
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Army and Navy Reforms
1862-74
Examples of Military Reform:
Service in the army coud no longer be given by the courts as punishment
Length of Service was reduced from 25 years to 15 years (With just 6 years in the army and 9 years in the reserves)
Conscription was made compulsory for all classes (Including nobles) from the age of 20 - although educartion could reduce the length of service
Corporal punishment and flogging were abolished and military punishments made less severe -
Educational Reforms 1863-4
Liberal Minister for Education 1862-7 - Alexander Golovnin pushed for reforms that rejected the Church's conservatism:
Universities were given the opportunity to govern themselves in 1863, appointing their own staff, subject to the approval of the Ministry of Education.
1864: Responsibility for schooling was transferred from the Church to the Zemstva
Schooling was made open to everybody and extended throughout the country at both primary and seconday levels. -
Local Government Reform
The Zemstva were local councils which were elected through a system of 'electoral colleges' which allowed the noblity to dominate the system.
They existed at both district (Uezd) and provincal levels (Zemstvo)
The Zemstva had a range of powers to make improvements to public services such as roads, schools, public health and gaols as well as develop industrial projects. -
Judicial Reforms
Ts. Alexander II continued Ts. Nicholas I's work of the codification of Russian Law - reducing the number and clarfying laws.
Key reforms: Equality before the law - no seperate courts
Freedom of the Press was extended to legal reporting
Volost courts were established to deal with emancipated serfs and were presided by peasants to deal with minor crimes.
Local courts with magistrates dealt with minor offences and could not impose a sentence of more than one year's imprisonment. -
Church Reforms 1867-9
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Local Government Reform
The Zemstva's system of governing was extended into towns where they created the Dumas. -
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Alexander III
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Nicholas II