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John Wycliffe translated the Bible into vernacular English. This translation sets up the basis for the Protestant reformation. -
The printing press is invented by Johannes Gutenberg. The printing press promoted the education of all classes and started the Northern Renaissance. -
Lorenzo gained power in Florence through his success in commerce and banking, preserving the independence of the state. He was also a patron of the arts, supporting people like de Vinic and Michelangelo. He made Florence the center of artistic production in Italy. -
King Ferdinand (king of Spain), and Isabell (Queen of Castile) get married. This made Spain a dominant country in Europe, prompting the Spanish Inquisition and the discovery of the Americas. -
Da Vinci wanted to illustrate the principles of Vitruvius, who described the proportion of the human body. It also illustrates what he described the connection between the human form and the universe. -
Ferdinand and Isabella sent Columbus on his voyage. Columbus colonized and exploited the lands and people. Plants native to the Americas were imported to Europe. -
Vasco de Gama was the first person to sail from Europe to India by going around Africa's Cape of Good Hope. He landed and trade-in locales along the coast of southern Africa before reaching India. He was a revolutionary in navigations and established Portugal as a colonial empire. -
One of the most know sculpture pieces, David was finished. Inspired by Classical Greek art, it became a symbol of strength for Florence. The statue is 17 ft tall and uses the Renaissance style of focusing on the individual. -
Utopia by Thomas More was first published in 1516. It was written as a way to suggest improvements that could be made to European society, in its times of struggles. In Utopia, there is no corruption or power struggles due to the fact that there is no money or private property. -
Martin Luther posts his 95 theses on a church door in Wittenberg. This started the Protestant Reformation and questioned the Catholic church for the selling of Indulgences. -
The Holy Roman Empire held the Diet of Worms. It declared that Martin Luther and his new religion were outlawed, for charges of Heresy. -
Inspired by the Reformation, peasants through Germany demanded agricultural rights and freedoms from oppression by nobles and landlords. Over 100,000 peasants were killed in the fighting, creating a crisis for Marin Luther and the Reformation. It also marked the beginning of the end of the feudal system. -
John Calvin created Calvinism. This reform in the Roman Catholic Church started the reformation of many other churches during this time. Calvinism also helped promote a stable society. -
The Prince, by Machiavelli, is Published. This text explained what a good ruler should be/look like. It was aimed at the Medici who was ruling Italy at the time. -
Founded by Ignatius de Loyola, a priest, the Jesuits were a religious order of men in the Roman Catholic Church, committed to educating people around the world about Catholicism. It was also created to stop the spread of Protestantism, a growing religion at the time, creating the Counter-Reformation -
Erasmus was a Dutch humanist who was one of the greatest scholars of the Northern Renaissance. He was the first editor of the New Testament, and criticized the abuses within the Catholic church, calling for reform. He translated many classical works into Greek and Latin and wrote many satirical novels. -
Pope Paul III excommunicated Henry VIII from the Catholic Church. He also rejected the KIng's request to divorce his wife Catherine of Aragon. This decision lead Henry to start the English Reformation, separating the Church of England from the Catholic Church. -
The astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus developed a model of the universe, with the sun positioned at the center. He developed this view because it better explained the motions of the heavens mathematically. -
The Council of Trent was the Catholic Church's reply to the challenges of the Protestant Reformation. The self-reform improved the Catholic Church as a response to Protestant expansion. It made a lasting and significant impact on the education of the clergy. -
The Book of Common Prayer is the prayer book used in the Anglican Communion. It also included the completer forms of service for daily and Sunday worship in English. It was used as the authoritative guide for the priest and people of the Church of England. -
The Peace of Augsburg ended the religious conflicts between Lutheranism and Catholicism. It allowed rulers to choose the religion of their country, and how they practiced that religion -
Despite the gold Spain received from its South American Colonies, the Spanish monarchy declared itself bankrupt nine times between 1557 to 1666. Inflation caused high prices to spread across Europe, Spain was becoming poorer since the discovery of the Americas. -
On this day, the Mobs of Roman Catholics killed 5,000 to 30,000 protestants (in France). This was during the French Religious war and marked the turning point of the war. This massacre was followed by even more deaths. -
Elizabeth ascended the throne at 25 after the death of Mary Queen of Scots. Her coronation showed her intentions to restore England to Protestantism, but still allow some Catholic Customs. She forged England as a strong and independent nation. -
The astronomer Galileo modeled made his first telescope in 1609, with his telescope, he was able to look at the moon, discover the four satellites of Jupiter, observe a supernova, and verify the phases of Venus. He was also able to prove the Copernican system. -
Scientist Francis Bacon created the first form of the scientific method. It involved testing and reigning hypotheses by observing, measuring, and experimenting. He believed it was crucial to the evolution of science in the modern world. -
He succeeded his father as the king of France, at the age of four years and eight months. He viewed himself as the direct representative of God. He ruled with absolute power with power from his divine right. -
The Peace of Westphalia brought the end to the Eighty Years War between Spain, the Dutch, and Germany. As a result, the Netherlands gained independence from Spain, and France was acknowledged as the prominent Western power. The power of the Holy Roman Emperor was also broken. -
After ascendeing to the English throne after the death of hist father, King James I. Charles dissolved Parliament many times and eventually decided to rule without Parliament. This lead to the first outbreak of the English Civil war. Oliver Cromwell, leader of the New Model Army, forced Charles to surrender. He was convicted of treason and later beheaded. -
Leviathan written by Thomas Hobbes was published in April 1615. It argues that civil peace and social unity are best achieved by the establishment of a commonwealth through a social contract. Hobbes was the first to apply the tools of the Scientific Revolution to problems of politics. -
The restoration marked the return of an English King, after Oliver Cromwell's Commonwealth period. Cromwell had a large unpopularity, and no one liked his army or religious policies. George Monck forced Cromwell to resign as lord protecter, and Charles II was crowned king. -
Peter the Great started a wide range of economics, social,political, administrative, educational, and military reforms. He ended the traditionalism and religion in Russian and initiated Russia's westernization. -
Isaac Newton published his Principe Mathematica. It is a work explaining Newton's laws of motion and universal gravitation. This book helped define the Age of Reason and is Newton's most celebrated achievement. -
Signed into law by William III and Mary II, who overthrow of King James II. The bill outlined specific constitutional and civil rights, it gave power to the Parliament over the Monarchy. -
John Locke published his essay concerning Human understanding. It outlines how humans think and perceive things in our lives. It also details how we express ourselves through language, logic, and religious practices. -
Montesquieu published his spirit of the laws, a treatise on political theory. It was also a pioneering work in comparative law. It said that political institutions ought to reflect the social and geographical aspects of each community. -
Diderot published his Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. It was used to link knowledge
and establish connections, it was also the largest publishing project of its time. Diderot's aim was to change the common way of thinking through the expansion of knowledge. -
Voltaire wrote Candide to express his lifelong aversion to Christian regimes of power and the arrogance of nobility. It also criticizes certain aspects of the philosophical movement of the Enlightenment. It was banned by the Catholic Church because the book poked fun and many religious and political figures. -
Cathrine married Karl Ulrich, the heir to the throne of Russia. Once he became king, she overthrew him and became the Empress of Russia herself. She had led a successful rebellion against him and Karl was abdicated. She was the last reigning Empress of Russia, was a patron of the arts, and reorganized the Russian law code. -
James Watt patented the modern steam engine in 1769. He used separate cylinders in his design to condense the steam into water. After Watt improved the Engine, production began and steam engines became practical and available to everyone. -
The Estates-General was the representative assembly of the three classes in France. King Louis xvi called the first meeting since 1614, to discuss the decline of the French economy. They were called to Versailles, and discussed the levying of new takes and upcoming reforms in the country. -
The Third Estate formed the National Assembly, representing all of the people of France. Their main goal was to limit the power of the Monarchy, by taking control of the government. They took the tennis court oath, official creating the new revolutionary government, this was the first sign of the upcoming French Revolution. -
Rebel Parisians stormed the Bastille to get rid of the government ammunition and arms. The prison showed the monarchy's dictatorial rule over the country, and its destruction became a defining moment in the revolution. -
The Great Fear was a general panic that took place at the start of the French Revolution. Fearful peasants armed themselves in self-defense and some even attacked manor houses. It was caused by rumors of an "aristocratic conspiracy" to overthrow the Third Estate (National Assembly) -
Mary Wollstonecraft wanted to encourage society to recognize women as a valuable resource to society. In the books, she defends females as full human beings, who deserve the same education that men receive. Wollstonecraft was the first real “feminist” and has sparked debates that are still important today. -
The Death of Marat is a painting of the murdered French revolutionary leader Jean-Paul Marat. It is a famous image from the French Revolution. David was a leading French painter at the time and a member of the revolutionary Committee of General Security. It was a tribute to his friend after he was murdered by Charlotte Corday. -
The Terror was period of state allowed violence and mass executions. The Committee of Public Safety, ran by Robespierre, allowed the Terror to achieve their higher political goals. The executions were of those who were "enemies of the Revolution", eventually even Robespierre was guillotined and the Terror ended. -
Following the end of the Committee of Public Safety, The Directory was formed. They cleaned up after the Terror, but were sill very corrupt. In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte staged a Coup, which was successful. The Directory was then replaced by the Consulate. -
The Concordat was between Napoleon and the Roman Catholic Church. It reaffirmed the RCC as the majority church of France, and restored some of its civil status. Napoleon could now win the favor of French Catholics while also controlling Rome politically. -
Napoleon proclaimed himself Emperor. His coronation took place in Noter-Dame, and he crowned himself rather than by the pope. This showed that he could be controlled by anyone. By proclaiming himself as the highest authority in France he was able stop any potential uprisings from his enemies. -
With help from the British, the colonial authorities surrendered. General Dessalines assumed dictatorial power, and Haiti become the second independent nation in the Americas. Haiti was France's wealthiest overseas colony, because of the production of. sugar, coffee, indigo, and cotton. -
The Napoleonic invasion of Russia was a major turning point in European history. The defeat led to the fall of Napoleon and the French empire. Over 200,000 soldiers were killed, 50,000 dispersed or deserted, and 150,000 were wounded. The French Amy could no longer absorb new recruits, and Napoleon was quickly exiled to Elba. -
The Congress of Vienna was the first international meeting to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe. It settled critical issues caused by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. They also wanted to resize the main powers, so they could balance each other and remain at peace. The members were Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain. -
The Corn Laws were tariffs and other restrictions on imported food and corn enforced in Britain starting in 1815. The Laws were originally designed to protect English Farmers from the inexpensive foreign imports of grain. They benefited the nobility and other large landholders, who owned all the farmland. -
After his exile to Elba, Napoleon came back one more time!
Napoleon went to war at Waterloo against the British and Prussians. However the environmental conditions, the weak state of his army, and the poor planning of his officers eventually led to his demise.
Napoleon lost at the Battle of Waterloo, he was forced to abdicate for the second time, ending the Napoleonic Era. https://youtu.be/Sj_9CiNkkn4 -
Don Juan is a satirical, epic poem that portrayed Don Juan, as a man easily seduced by women. Lord Byron was a Romantic poet, his poetry captured the imagination of Europe. Byron established his own ideas of love and marriage in Don Juan, making him a leading figure in the Romantic movement. -
Louis XVIII’s reign was the first parliamentary government since the French Revolution. He spent most of his time investing in the executive powers, and his largely advisory parliament voted on laws and approved the budget. The government of the Bourbon Restoration was a constitutional monarchy. As a constitutional monarch, Louis XVIII's royal prerogative was reduced substantially by the Charter of 1814, France's new constitution. -
The Bourbon Restoration restored the pre-Napoleonic monarchy to the throne. It was marked by conflicts between reactionary Ultra-royalists, who wanted to restore the absolute monarchy, and liberals, who wanted to strengthen the constitutional monarchy. -
The Great Famine was caused by a failure of the potato crop. Many people relied on potatoes for most of their nutrition. A disease called late blight destroyed the leaves and edible roots of the potato plants in successive years. Roughly one million Irish died from starvation and related causes. -
The Communist Manifesto formed the basis for the modern communist movements. The book argued that capitalism would inevitably self-destruct. Karl Marx later developed Marxism, whose main goal was to achieve a classless society throughout the world. -
Emmeline Pankhurst was an English political activist. She organized the UK suffragette movement and helped women win the right to vote. She also founded the Women's Social and Political Union, which used militant tactics to advocate for women's suffrage. -
The Origin of Species Means of Natural Selection is a work of scientific literature by Charles Darwin that is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology. He proposed that species evolve and that all living things can trace their descent to a common ancestor. There was also a wide controversy as the piece conflicted with the beliefs that species were a hierarchy and that humans were unique. -
Serfs gained the full rights of free citizens, including rights to marry, to own property, and to own a business. The serfs from private estates were given less land than they needed to survive, which eventually led to civil unrest. The emancipation caused substantial increases both in agricultural productivity and peasant food consumption. -
The annexation of Venetia in 1866 and papal Rome in 1870 marked the final unification of Italy and the end of the Risorgimento. Under Napoleon, Italy became part of the French Empire and embodied the ideals of the French Revolution. Promoting liberty, equality, fraternity, and strengthening the political processes. -
Otto von Bismarck unified Germany into a nation-state, forming the German Empire. The Wars of Unification resulted in the annexation of large populations of non-German speakers after Bismarck provoked hostilities with France as a way of uniting Germany. German unification affected the rest of Europe by causing a blow to liberalism, as it changed the balance of power in Europe. -
Bloody Sunday was a massacre in St. Petersburg, Russia, of peaceful demonstrators marking the beginning of the violent phase of the Russian Revolution of 1905. Led by Father Georgy Gapon, the protesters were fired upon by soldiers of the Imperial Guard as they marched towards the Winter Palace to present a petition to Tsar Nicholas II of Russia. -
After the loss of 1,496 people who died aboard the Titanic, ships were required to carry enough lifeboats for everyone on board. Radios were also required to be kept on for 24 hours a day and an international ice patrol was established. The Titanic sinking also had a huge social impact as it was the first major international disaster -
The assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, who was heir to the Austrian Hungarian throne, and his wife, eventually lead to the outbreak of WW1. He was assassinated by a Bosnian Serb nationalist during an official visit to the Bosnian capital of Sarajevo. Eventually, all the European powers quickly joined in to defend their alliances, preserve or expand their empires, and display patriotism. -
The Gallipoli campaign was a military strategy intended to allow Allied ships to pass through the Dardanelles, and capture Constantinople. The allies ultimately wanted to knock Ottoman Turkey out of the war, and gain a sea route to Russia. It was a joint British and French operation, the results can be seen as a failure or a success. On one hand, it distracted the Ottomans from fighting on other fronts, however, there were nearly half a million casualties. -
The February Revolution was the first stage of the Russian Revolution of 1917, in which the monarchy was overthrown and replaced by the Provisional Government. The revolution caused the abdication of the Tsar and the end of nearly 500 years of autocratic rule in Russia. The Provisional Government was established and new reforms introduced. Russia continued to fight in the First World War, even though Russia was no match for Germany, and Russian casualties were greater than any other nation. -
The February Revolution was the first stage of the Russian Revolution of 1917, in which the monarchy was overthrown and replaced by the Provisional Government. The revolution caused the abdication of the Tsar and the end of nearly 500 years of autocratic rule in Russia. The Provisional Government was established and new reforms introduced. Russia continued to fight in the First World War, even though Russia was no match for Germany, and Russian casualties were greater than any other nation. -
On April 4, 1917, The U.S. Senate voted in support to declare war on Germany. The United States later declared war on German ally Austria-Hungary on December 7, 1917. With the toll of sunken U.S. merchant ships and civilian casualties rising, Wilson asked Congress for “a war to end all wars” that would “make the world safe for democracy. -
The Bolsheviks, led by leftist revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, seized power and destroyed the tradition of tsarist rule. Causes of the Russian Revolution included widespread corruption and inefficiency within the tsarist imperial government. There was also growing dissatisfaction among peasants, workers, and soldiers, the monarchy's level of control over the Russian Orthodox Church. The Bolsheviks would later become the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. -
The leading factors of the German Revolution were due to burdens of WW1 on the German population, and growing social tensions between the general population and the elite . There was also growing discontent with the political and social order imposed by the Congress of Vienna. -
The Treaty of Versailles forced Germany and other Central Powers to take all the blame for World War I. This meant a loss of territories, reduction in military forces, and reparation payments to Allied powers. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers, and was signed on 28 June 1919 in the Palace of Versailles, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. -
The League of Nations was an international organization founded after the Paris Peace Conference, in 1919. It was created after the First World War to provide a forum for resolving international disputes. The founders of the League of Nations were desperate to avoid a repetition of the horrors of WWI. The main aims of the organization included disarmament, collective security, negotiation and diplomacy, and improving global welfare. -
Hitler destroyed Germany’s democratic institutions and transformed Germany into a war state intent on conquering Europe for the benefit of the so-called Aryan race. Hitler's goals included territorial expansion, consolidation of a racially pure state, and elimination of the Jews. -
After Lenin died on 21 January 1924, Stalin was officially hailed as his successor as the leader of the ruling Communist Party and of the Soviet Union itself. This included the creation of a one-party totalitarian police state, rapid industrialization, the theory of socialism in one country, collectivization of agriculture, intensification of class conflict, and the interest of foreign communist parties. -
Mussolini was appointed prime minister, by 1925 he had dismantled Italy's democratic government and, acting as a dictator, declared himself Il Duce. Today, Mussolini is remembered for establishing the first fascist movement in the world, he influenced Hitler and was the basis for his mass genocide which caused millions of death in Europe. -
Mein Kampf promoted the key components of Nazism:antisemitism, a racist world view, and aggressive foreign policy. In Mein Kampf, Hitler used the main thesis of "the Jewish peril". The narrative describes the process by which he became increasingly antisemitic and militaristic, especially during his years in Vienna. Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf was part autobiography and part political treatise By late 1932, almost 230,000 copies had been sold. -
Hindenburg acquiesced and formally appointed Adolf Hitler as chancellor. The law subsequently also gave Hitler emergency powers to pass and enforce laws without parliamentary oversight. -
The Nuremberg Laws were antisemitic and racist laws that were enacted in Nazi Germany on 15 September 1935, at a special meeting of the Reichstag convened during the annual Nuremberg Rally of the Nazi Party. Jews found it difficult even to buy food, as groceries, bakeries, and dairies would not admit Jewish customers. Even pharmacies refused to sell them medicines or drugs. -
On July 18, 1936, troops under the leadership of General Francisco Franco began an uprising against the democratically elected government of Spain. This revolt quickly escalated into a civil war. The Spanish Civil War is sometimes called a prelude to World War II. The conflict became a battlefield of ideologies, the church against the state. -
The 1936 Summer Olympics, commonly known as the Nazi Olympics, It was canceled after the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in July 1936, just as thousands of athletes had begun to arrive. Individual Jewish athletes from a number of countries also chose to boycott the Berlin Olympics or Olympic qualifying trials. It provided a perfect opportunity for the Nazis to showcase Hitler's Third Reich to the 49 nations of the world. -
The Hindenburg disaster was an airship accident that occurred on May 6, 1937, in Manchester Township, United States. The German passenger airship Hindenburg caught fire and was destroyed during its attempt to dock at Naval Air Station Lakehurst. The Hindenburg disaster was caused by a spark that ignited leaking hydrogen. Of 97 people aboard, 62 survived. -
Munich Agreement was a settlement reached by Germany, Great Britain, France, and Italy that permitted German annexation of the Sudetenland, in western Czechoslovakia. Adolf Hitler's threats to occupy the German-populated part of Czechoslovakia stemmed from his broader goal of reuniting Europe's German-populated areas. -
Kristallnacht or the Night of Broken Glass was a pogrom against Jews carried out by the Nazis.Nazi officials depicted the riots as justified reactions to the assassination of German foreign official Ernst vom Rath. Mobs destroyed hundreds of synagogues, burning or desecrating Jewish religious artifacts along the way, police officers and firefighters did nothing to prevent the destruction. Approximately 7,500 Jewish-owned businesses, homes, and schools were plundered, and 91 Jews were murdered. -
During the Spanish Civil War, Barcelona, the Republican capital of Spain, fell to the Nationalist forces of General Francisco Franco. Between 16 and 18 March 1938, Barcelona was bombed by bombers of the Italian Aviazione Legionaria, the branch of the Italian Air Force fighting in the Spanish Civil War. After the defeat of the Francoists, it became clear that the workers' militias were the ones that really controlled the city. -
In January 1939, Barcelona was captured, and soon after the rest of Catalonia fell. The victorious Nationalists entered Madrid in triumph, and the Spanish Civil War came to an end. France was able to prolong the war by campaigning for physical and psychological terror, social and economic repression, suppressing public mourning, and enforcing a public memory that included only Nationalist war sacrifices. -
Germany invaded Poland and attacks from Russia and west Germany destroyed Poland, initiating World War II in Europe. German forces broke through Polish defenses along the border and quickly advanced on Warsaw, the Polish capital. Just 26 days after the invasion, Poland surrendered to the Nazis. -
The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the Japanese on the United States against the naval base at Pearl Harbor in Honolulu. The attack on Pearl Harbor left more than 2,400 Americans dead and shocked the nation -
Treblinka was an extermination camp, built and operated by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland during World War II. It carried out the mass murder of Europe's Jews, the SS established killing centers devoted exclusively or primarily to the destruction of the German Jewish population. -
On September 2, World War II ended when U.S. General Douglas MacArthur accepted Japan's formal surrender aboard the U.S. battleship Missouri, anchored in Tokyo Bay. Germany had four key fatal weaknesses in the Second World War: the lack of productivity in its economy, the weak supply lines, the start of a war on two fronts, and the lack of strong leadership. -
The Marshall Plan was a U.S.-sponsored program designed to rehabilitate the economies of 17 western and southern European countries in order to create stable conditions. The United States transferred over $13 billion in economic recovery programs to Western European economies after the end of World War II. -
The Berlin Blockade was one of the first major international crises of the Cold War. The Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway, road, and canal access to the sectors of Berlin under Western control. Stalin wanted Germany to remain weak, but the Western Allies disagreed and were encouraging Germany to rebuild in the Western sectors. -
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was created in 1949 by the United States, Canada, and several Western European nations to provide collective security against the Soviet Union. It was created as a deterrent to the threat of Soviet expansion in Europe after World War II. -
American troops supporting the South joined the war in the following months and the North Koreans, supported by China and the USRR, were pushed back. A bloody stalemate ensued and an armistice was signed between the US and North Korea in July, ending the war. -
The world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957, marking the start of the space race. It competition between two Cold War adversaries, the Soviet Union and the United States, to achieve superior spaceflight capability. It had its origins in the ballistic missile-based nuclear arms race between the two nations following World War II. -
The Bay of Pigs Invasion was a failed landing operation on the southwestern coast of Cuba in by Cuban exiles who opposed Fidel Castro's Cuban Revolution. The ultimate goal was the overthrow of Castro and the establishment of a non-communist government friendly to the United States. The 1400 exiles were met by 20,000 Cuban troops and the population did not support the exiles. They were all captured or killed within days. -
The fall of the Berlin Wall was a pivotal event in world history which marked the falling of the Iron Curtain and one of the series of events that started the fall of communism in Eastern and Central Europe,The Berlin Wall had physically and ideologically cleaved Europe in half, yet was brought down by Gorbachev's liberalisation of Soviet internal and foreign policy,and anti-government protests in East Germany and the democratization of other eastern and central European states.