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by 8000BC, the last Ice Age had ended and the climate had on the whole become milder and more stable making continuous habitation from then possible -
Britain had until that time been linked to the Continent by a marshy plain, but the melting ice caps caused the sea level to rise, so that by 7000BC, Britain and Ireland became islands for good -
built in various stages: the oldest goes back to 3000BC -
from 600BC onwards -
Celtic tribes
Small rural communities -
55-54 BC expeditions; trading and diplomatic contacts; 43 AD invasion and conquest ; 122 AD Hadrian's Wall sophisticated urban civilisation; introduction of Christianity; decline from 350 AD onwards
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in 55-54 BC, two exploratory Roman expeditions were undertaken during the reign of Julius Caesar. These were followed by a century of trading contacts between Rome en the British Celts, especially in the South East -
The Romans wanted the biggest empire the world had ever seen. This ambition finally brought them to invade Britain by military force in 43 AD -
the emperor Hadrian ordered a long defensive frontier wall to be built to mark the northern frontier of Roman Britain from coast to coast -
Angles, Saxons, Jutes arrival; Celts driven away towards the "fringe" (mass migration and settlement of Anglo-Saxons in Britain)
537 AD death of King Arthur -
In the second half of the 4th century, Scottish invaders were making incursion across Hadrian's Wall and Anglo-Saxon pirates were beginning to attack the southern-eastern coast + political trouble within the RE -
Originally written in Latin ca. 524 AD by Boethius in prison, awaiting to be executed => translated several more times into English -
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A written culture developed in Britain after the conversion to Christianity from 597 onwards => link between Christianity and written communication => the Bible -
Celtic Christianity had to take a fresh start some two centuries after the end of the Roman occupation, with the arrival of St Augustine (because of occupation of pagan Germanic tribes) => it marks the beginning conversion to Christianity. St Augustine sent by Pope Gregory arrives in Kent with some monks to Christianise England. King Aethelbert was the 1ste English king to be converted. -
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the oldest poem in English => we know nothing about Caedmon except what Bede tells us about him in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum
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Differences (between Celtic Church more or less cut off and St Augustine's missionaries) were resolved at the Synod of Whitby, which led to the unification of the English Church -
Bede wrote it as a British and Anglo-Saxon supplement to the existing histories of the Church => more "political" objective to strengthen the unity of the English Church -
Viking raids were part of the mass movement of the "Scandinavian" Germanic people between the year 750 and 1050 (affected the whole Europe) => the Danish and Norse invaders spreading over Scotland and Ireland the North and the East of England => middle of the 9th century half of England was in Viking hands -
-reign from 871 to 886
-was king of Wessex (AS kingdom rose into prominence during the 9th century)
-defeated the Vikings
-reformed the English army
-wanted to bring about a cultural revival and to re-educate the AS in the true Christian spirit -
King Alfred, who ruled over Wessex, succeeded in defeating the Danes and stopping the progression towards the South => the Danes withdrew north of a line agreed by treaty in an area which is known as the Danelaw (refers to the Danish influence on legal customers) => process of assimilation (influence on the language) -
it started in 890, can be described as a series of annals => the manuscript in Peterborough continued until 1154 => it has to be called Peterborough Chronicle -
King Alfred's successors did even better an damaged to recapture political control of the Danelaw from the Scandinavian rulers (completed by 955) => England was united and the royal house of Wessex also became the royal house of England -
the most important literary achievement of AS times => date of composition is very uncertain, usually believed to have been composed in the 8th century => the only one manuscript dating from roughly 1 000 AD (damaged by a fire in 1731) -
A century after Alfred's victory, a new move of Viking raids swept over the whole country => AS were unable to meet the challenge and suffered various defeats => in 1016, the Danish king Cnut gained full control of the land, so that England an Denmark became united kingdoms (famous legend) -
England's first king after 1066 often devoted more time and attention to the French territories of their kingdoms than to English part, which they saw as a mere extension of the former. English and French existed side by side => England and France ruled by the same king from 1066 onwards
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After Cnut's death a confused period followed => ended with a conflict between the last AS king Harold and his rival Duke William of Normandy => in 1066, Harold ascended the throne => BUT the was to be ousted end killed in the Battle of Hsting by William of Normandy => William claimed the succession => this event marks the end of The Old English and the beginning of the Middle English period -
In 1066, Duke William of Normandy defeated the English at Hastings and began his rule as William I -> The Roman were originally Vikings -> They had previously conquered the region of France (Normandy today) -> integrated with its native population, adopting the local language -> form of French = result from this assimilation process
Bayeux tapestry -> represented the conquest of England by William
William had to crush several Anglo-Saxon revolts -
not really a "tapestry" but a long band of linen (5à com wide and over 70 m long) embroidered with coloured wool -> represents in 58 scenes the key events in the reign of Harold II and the conquest of England by William -> unique historical chronicle (remind the convention of the modern comic strip) -
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William I ("the Conqueror") => William II => Henry I => Stephen
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-William of Normandy descended -> Scandinavian occupied northern France (10th century) and had learnt the French dialect
-From 1066 onwards, England and French -> ruled by the same king + side by side
-the mariage of King Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine (1154)+ weakened position of England and English language
-aristocracy and senior clergy -> French-speaking bc Norman -> had helped William in conquest of England -> rewarded with lands, titles ad high positions in Church and Government -
-1066, the AS aristocracy was ousted by a new generation of leaders from France -> brought a new language & new modes of cultural expressions -> aristocratic patronage
-however, literature in English not extinct -> famous texts (Peterborough Chronicle; Layamon's Brut) -> English used by the church -> part of AS oral tradition -
a manuscript recorded of the "Great survey" of much of England and part of Wales completed in 1086 at the behest of king William I, known as William the conqueror
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Geoffrey of Monmouth, author of the History of the king from 1137
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-Geoffrey of Monmouth was an Welshman
-his Historia Regum Bitanniae from 1137 = one of the most central books of the Middle Ages
-presents a colourful mixture of historical fact and fiction (not acceptable by the modern and standard s of modern historical research -> pages devoted to King Arthur almost pure fabrication)
-mine to be exploited by several later generations of writers -
the most famous collection of Goliardic songs and poem is called "Carmina Burana" (12th century)
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-reign from 1154 to 1189
-the most powerful ruler in Western Europe
-inheritance (England, Normandy) + his mariage Eleanor of Aquitaine (owned much of the Western half of France) = empire
-competent king
-achievement overshadowed -> murder of the King's former friend Thomas Becket in 1170 -
William I was succeeded by his sons William II and Henry I and then by his grandson Stephen -> succession disputed -> ended in anarchy and civil war
Henry II => Richard I => John
after Stephen's death, Henry II succeeded -> 1st Plantagenet king -> this dynasty remains in power until 1485 (end of Middle Ages) -
Robert Wace, a Norman, wrote a free paraphrase of Geoffrey's Historia in Norman French, adding many element (motif of the Round Table). It is called Roman de Brut.
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Rober Wace, a Norman, wrote a free paragraphe of Geoffrey's Historia in Norman French -> adding many elements (the Round Table) from others sources -> resulting Roman de Brut
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power struggle developed between the King and the Church -> Thomas Becket (archbishop of Canterbury) was opposing Henry's attempts to bring the church within the juridiction of the king's court -> Becket wanted the Church to use its own courts -> climax when Becket (King's former friend) was murdered in Canterbury cathedral by 4 followers of the king -> Becket canonised
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- reign from 1189 to 1199 -spent first half of his reign on crusade => epithet "Lionheart" -second part mostly on France-> trying to regain lands taken by the French king
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-Richard's younger brother (reign 1199 to 1216)
-lost most of the family's possessions in France -> causing the Angevin empire to Collapse
-ambition to win back his former continental possessions -> impose heavy taxes on the barons -> baronial rebellion -
this version of Geoffrey's Historia was freely adapted into English by a writer named Layamon -> this poem in alliterative verse marks first occurence of the Arthurian story in English
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King John (Richard's younger brother) -> lost most of the family's possession in France -> Angevin empire to collapse -> ambition to win back his former continental possessions -> impose heavy new taxes on the barons -> baronial rebellion -> forced to sign the Magna Carta (main message: king is not above the law = defence of individual rights against the absolute power of despots)
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Henry III => Edward I => Edward II => Edward III => Richard II
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-from 1250 onwards, Old English = purely Germanic language but many French words found their way into English voc especially in certain lexical fields
-sphere of high culture (cuisine) linked with everyday activities if ordinary folk (farming)-> lexical structure reflects social culture
-gradual decline of complex inflectional system of old English -> vast increased of words borrowed from French & reduced system of grammatical inflections -> transition from "Old English" to "Middle English" -
-literature reserved for the higher classes-> only people could afford to support artist financially (patronage)-> literature in England up to 1250 in French (French literature from the continent or French-language writings on English soil)
-after 1250, original compositions + & + in English-> French influence remained very strong-> French lexical elements fully integrated into English literature-> translation from French; new verse forms; new genres: fabliau & romance; new code of value -
-King and noblemen-> more interested in English affairs-> slow process of assimilation
-key factor-> political and military developments in France-> in English kings from king John onwards -> losing French territories (Edward III: Hundred Years' War+Henry V: victory of Agincourt -> unsuccessful)
-AS families-> difficult keep their possession or maintain claims on France-> tend to divide their estates among their heirs along geographical lines-> families owning land in both countries grew - & - -
-reign from 1312 to 1377
-Edward led England into the Hundred Year's War with France -> claiming the French Throne -> taking the title of King of France (1337-1453)
-he saw the ravages of the Black Death -> pandemic caused by bubonic plague -> killing almost half of its population in Britain in 1348 -> ruining economy and social unrest -
-an influential theologian
-have seen times of disease (Black Death, 1348) and economic hardship
-struck by the corruption of the church and its inadequacy in dealing with the problems of the people
-has radical conclusions against the interests of the church (the Bible -> had to be translated into the language of the people-> could read and understand)
-similar view with Martin Luther, William Tyndale and other reformers a century later (nicknamed as the "Lollards" =mumblers, mutterers) -
-a religious rural priest from the West Midlands -> speak out against the many injustices
-in his sleep, saw a picture of sinful society
-piers the plowman, a honest farmer -> his guide to st Truth
-Salvation -> work's central theme -> being sinful human can we go to the paradise
-emphasis the needs spiritual regeneration -> expressed search for salvation with realism and consciousness + satire at the corruption of Church and social elite
-become a work of social protest -
in 1337, Edward III led England into the Hundred Years' War with France, claiming the French throne and taking the title of King France -> "Hundred Year's War" not very accurate -> series of wards occurred
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a pandemic caused by the bubonic plague hit Britain -> killing almost half of its population -> rising its economy -> leading to great social unrest
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this is reflected by creative talent (second half of the 14th century-> leading writers:
-John Wycliffe(1330-1384); William Langland (1130-1386); the Gawain poet; Geoffrey Chaucer(1343-1400) Wycliffe and Langland-> members of the Church but critical of its inadequacies and abuses-> ahead of the great Protestant movement-> sweep EU in Renaissance period Langland & Gawain-poet recourse to the "old" alliterative from of AS verse-> desire to cultivate and revitalise native English literature -
- reign from 1367 to 1399 -> particularly troubled -in 1399, Richard II was forced to abdicate in favour of his cousin Henry IV, duke of Lancaster -> died (or murdered?) shortly thereafter in prison
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- after the forced abdication of Richard II -> took the English throne in 1399 in a speech famously made in English (not in Latin or French)
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Henry IV => Henry V => Henry VI => Edward IV => Edward V => Richard III
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-reign from 1412 to 1422
-determined to win back the lands in France belonged to his ancestors -> reopened the Hundred Years' War -> defeated the French at Agincourt in 1415 (represented a symbolic revenge for the defeat of the English by the French at Hasting in 1066)
-married the daughter of the French king -> heir to the French throne
-early died from disease -
Henry V was determined to win back the lands in France -> reopened the Hundred Year's War -> defeated the French at Agincourt in 1415 => symbolic revenge for the defeat of the English by the French at Hasting in 1066
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-reign from 1422 to 1461 + from 1470 to 1471
-crowned King of both England and France when was still a child
-weak ruler + suffered from bouts of insanity -
the French inspired by the romantic martyr figure of Joan Arc -> managed to expel the English from all of France (except Calais) -> defeat put an end to the Hundred Year's War
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a civil war in England between the (Lancastrian) followers of the King and his (Yorkist) opponents: the Wars of the Roses -> members of the Royal dynasty of York began to contest the legitimacy of Henry's claim to the throne -> around 1455 this conflict came to a head -> erupted in a series of civil disturbances -> following "Yorkists" came to the throne
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-reign from 1461 to 1483
-Edward of York succeed in deposing Henry VI (of Lancaster) -> became the next English king as Edward IV -
-reign during 2 months in 1483
-when Edward died -> his 12-y-old son was put on the throne as Edward V -
-reign from 1483 to 1485
-Edward's uncle Richard appointed as the young king's protector (Richard turned to his own clan) -> emprisoned Edward V and his younger brother Prince Richard in the Tower of London -> claiming they were illegitimate children -> he himself the rightful heir to the throne
-fate of the young princes unknown -> widely believed that Richard arranged their murder -
in 1485, Henry Tudor, the Lancastrian claimant to the throne -> led a successful attempt to overthrow Richard III -> defeated and killed him at the Battle of Bosworth -> became King Henry VII, 1st Tudor king => marking the end of the English Middle Ages and the beginning of the English Renaissance and the beginning of the English Renaissance
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