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Period: 20,000 BCE to
Beginnings To Exploration
The Beginning of societies. -
2000 BCE
Maya
The Mayan empire was one of the first native american, mesoamerican, societies in 2000 B.C. to 1500 A.D. Their society believed in bloodletting as a cure or prevention of diseases and illnesses. They are responsible for the creation of the calendar. They continued the mesoamerican ballgame, pitz, which required a rubber ball to go through, without use of hands, stone hoops. Their written language was hieroglyphics. They were the authors of the caste system. They also advanced human sacrificies. -
500
Dark Ages
The dark ages time period started from 500 to 1000 A.D., was a backward time for Europe. There was no higher learning, and their economy was weak. There was a complete cultural and educational domination by the catholic church. There was feudalism, which succeeded the Roman law and consisted of knights/warriors nobility. -
1095
The Crusades
The Crusades was a relatively unsuccessful time period during 1095 to 1291. They were mostly religious massacres between Muslims and European Christians. It is believed to this day, the crusades are the cause of the poor relationship between Christians, Jews, and Muslims. During this time period, there were awarded indulgences, to reduce their punishments for their sins. There were also Templars, also known as knights, that made up a catholic military. -
1300
The Renaissance
The Renaissance was a rebirth of everything in society, from culture to education, science and etc, in the 14th century to.the 17th century. It was a cultural movement that caused a transformation from the middle ages to modern history. The renaissance also consisted of classical reborn ideas. The printing press was an important creation that transformed the world. Exploration also brought newly acquired knowledge applied to exploration, as well as importation of technology and ideas. -
1492
Colombian Exchange
The Colombian exchange was named after Christopher Columbus, when he arrived in the Caribbean in 1492. It was an exchange of plants and animals from the old world to the new world. Diseases also traveled with these goods, killing the Indian population in the new world. The benefits mostly go to the old world. The new world already had all the livestock, so the new world traded their crops for the livestock and other crops they didn't own. -
1517
Reformation
The Reformation period lasted from 1517 to 1648. One reformation was the Protestant Reformation. The catholic church had indulgences, which permitted people to go to heaven if they payed money for their sins. Martin Luther was upset over the indulgences and created the 95 thesis, which then prompted the reformation. The Reformation of England prompted by Henry VIII when his wife, Catherine Aragon, couldn't birth a male heir. He wanted a divorce, pope denied, created Church of England. -
Jan 1, 1521
New Spain
New Spain started in 1521. The civilization had Encomiendas, which were tracks of land that enslaved Natives soon replaced by African slaves because of disease. Gold and Silver were frequently mined by the Natives, which financed the Spanish Empire. The religion of the civilization was Christianity. Friars built missions and churches near the Indian population, and they forced a religious conversion and cultural assimilation on the Native Americans. They explored for more gold. -
Period: to
English Colonial Societies
The different settlers that came from the old world to the new world. -
Chesapeake Colonies
The Chesapeake colonies was established during 1607, in Jamestown/Virginia. It started out as a private charter from the English crown in 1616 with 105 settlers. Only 32 were able to survive the first winter. They started off looking for gold and silver, but later tobacco made them profit. The colonies had a head-right system that attracted new population. The system promised 50 acres to anyone. Their location of their settlements were for the most part, near the coast of waterways. -
New England Colonies
The New England colonies started during 1602, in Plymouth, Massachusetts,Connecticut, New Hamp. and Maine. These settlers were puritans, which believed England and Holland were too corrupt. In 1620, the puritans created the Mayflower Compact in Plymouth. Charles the first dissolved Parliament in 1629, and led 20,000 upset puritans to Massachusetts Bay Colony. There the towns were built around the church or town center. The colony of Connecticut was created from church congregations. -
Triangular Trade
The Triangular Trade, also known as the Transatlantic Slave Trading System, transported crops, slaves and manufactured goods between West Africa, Caribbean and American colonies and European powers. -
Navigation Acts
The Navigation Acts were established in 1651. They required limited Dutch trade with English colonies. It also required all goods be transported on English or Colonial American ships. -
The Caribbean Colonies
The Caribbean islands were the Barbados, Jamaica, and other English-held islands. Sugar was and is the lifeblood of the region. Spain, France, England, and Holland all had stakes in the region. The Barbados,England possession, used slaves for island labor. They soon eventually outnumber the whites. They had no legal recourse for slaves. -
The Enlightenment
The enlightenment was from 1685 to 1815. It was a time period where mankind was improved through math and science. Enlightenment thinkers questioned traditional authority and conceived notions.The Enlightenment also created a variety of books, essays, inventions, scientific discoveries, laws, wars and revolutions. -
Glorious Revolution
The Glorious Revolution started during the time of 1688. King James the second was the 1st catholic monarch in over 100 years. The Parliament asked the Charles' daughter and husband, The William and Mary Of Orange, to invade England. They dethrone him and create/ sign the English Bill of Rights, which excludes Catholics from monarchy. -
Salem Witch Trials
There was war on the Northern Frontiers. Puritans were superstitious . Fear was rampant. The trials started with a minister's daughter who started acting strangely. Many in the town were accused of witch craft. -
Middle Passage
The Middle Passage was a part of the trading circulation between the nations that transported slaves. Slaves were packed densely onto ships and transported for labor. More than 10% of all slaves died on voyage. The demand for slaves increased exponentially in the 18th century. -
Period: to
Colonial America
Life in Colonial America. -
The Great Awakening
The Great Awakening was from 1730's to the 1770. The Great Awakening is the reaction to the separation between religion and government of the Enlightenment.It changed colonial American Society. Ordinary people were given a voice. -
New England Colonial Economy
The New England economy had markets based on fishing. Their economy was profited by ship building and trade in the Atlantic world. It also consisted of religious toleration. -
French and Indian War
The French and Indian War, also known as The Seven Years War, was a war over the dispute of territory between England, France, Spain and Great Britain. It was a world wide conflict, and the first real world war. -
Period: to
The Revolutionary War 1763-1783
1763-1783 -
Treaty of Paris 1763
The Treaty of Paris 1763 ended the French and Indian war. It will end French rule in North America, and Britain will control New France (Canada). The map is altered and French only maintain Haiti and small islands off Canada. -
The Stamp Act
The Stamp Act was one of the acts enforced on the colonists. It was required on all paper. This act was more harsher than the Revenue and Sugar act. The Lawyers and printers were most affected. -
Boston Massacre
The Boston Massacre occurred on March 5th, 1770. A crowd of Bostonians were harassing the British soldiers, and throwing rocks. Soldiers end up firing into the crowd. Paul Revere then creates fictious account,which was the first great example of American propaganda. -
Coercive Acts
The British established the Coercive Acts, also known as the Intolerable Acts, in 1774. They close the port of Boston. They did away with Massachusetts colonial charter. They restricted/ eliminated Massachusetts political institutions. The acts also allowed quartering of troops. -
1st Continental Congress
The first continental congress happened on 1774. The colonial leaders were concerned. All colonies except Georgia sent representatives. They denounced the Intolerable Acts and recommended the boycott of British goods. -
Militias
The Militias protected against frontier raids. They were the primary defense and as a police force. They were used against the redcoats. -
Concord And Lexington Battle
The Concord and Lexington Battle happened in 1775. The British were concerned of the militias and tried to seize the colonists' military supplies. Paul Revere, who was apart of the Sons of Liberty, took a midnight ride to warn the other colonist that the British were coming. Revere was then captured. -
Proprietary Colonies
The proprietary colonies were New York and New Jersey. Proprietary means ownership or control. Oliver Cromwell ruled England as a republic. He stopped colonization. Charles the second re- established monarchy, and caused colonization to continue. New York and New Jersey were the last of the charter colonies. -
Common Sense
Common Sense was written by Thomas Paine in 1776. It argued for Independence. The piece attacked monarchy, and was prone to democratic representative government. It was widely poor and cheap. Because of this piece, American colonial views of monarchy change. -
Period: to
The Constitution
Creating A Workable Government -
Articles of Confederation
The Articles of Confederation was ratified on March 1st, 1781. it was the first constitution of the 13 colonies. It was a weak constitution because congress couldn't get anything done. There wasn't enough executive power and there was no central government authority. -
Shay's Rebellion
The Shay's Rebellion happened in 1786 and 1787. It was an unorganized rebellion in Massachusetts by farmers that were mad their farms were being seized. The economy went bad and the farms were being foreclosed. This rebellion proved the Articles of Confederation was weak and prompted the constitution reform. -
The Virginia Plan
The Virginia Plan was made on May 29th, 1787. This plan was constructed for large population states. They wanted to ditch the Articles of Confederation. The plan gave states large power when given authority. It promoted a single executive and a president, as well as a separate judiciary. The plan also consisted of a 2 house legislature. The lower house was the house of representatives and the upper house was the senate. The population was based on representation. -
New Jersey Plan
The New Jersey plan was made on June 15th, 1787. The plan was made for small states. It was a modified version of the Articles of Confederation. It promoted single legislatures and the legislature supreme law of the land. The executive was elected by congress. The plan also consisted of a less powerful judiciary. -
The Connecticut Plan
The Connecticut Plan, also known as the Great Compromise, was a compromise of the New Jersey and Virginia plan. The plan had a bi-Cameral legislature that consisted of the house of representatives for lower and 2 senates per state for the upper. -
Election of 1788
The election of 1788 was the first selection. Washington was a god-like figure. He was everyone's choice, so he was elected as president. John Adams became vice president, because he was second place. -
The Federalists
The Federalists were in the Great Debate against Anti-Federalists. They lasted from 1789 to 1801. The federalists supported the constitution. They wanted an all powerful central government. They opposed the Bill of Rights. They also were for checks and Balances to preserve the government. -
The Anti-Federalists
The Anti-federalists were in the Great Debate with the Federalists. They supported less government. They wanted states rights. They also supported the Bill of Rights. -
Alexander Hamilton
Alexander Hamilton was one of the infamous founding fathers. He was a federalists, who wanted a strong central government. He catered to rich and wanted a business economy. He is a strong influence over Washington. -
Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson was one of the infamous founding fathers. He is the author of the Declaration Of Independence. He decentralized government. He also had a child with a slave. He was apart of the nation of farmers. He was also a republican. -
Period: to
The New Republic
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Whiskey Rebellion
The Whiskey Rebellion was from 1791 to 1794. It was the first test of the constitution. The Pennsylvania and Kentucky farmers will revolt after they put taxes on whiskey. Whiskey was economically important and earned large profit. About 6,000 threaten to attack Pittsburgh. This rebellion showed the constitution is strong. -
Bill of Rights
The Bill of Rights was put into effect on December 15th, 1791. The anti-federalists supported the Bill of Rights. James Madison was the author of the constitution and introduced the Bill of Rights. It guaranteed individual rights and liberties. -
Cotton Gin
Invented by Eli Whitney, the cotton gin that was popular in the South. The South became the cotton producing part of the country because Whitney's cotton gin. -
Washington's Farewell Address
Washington's Farewell Address occurred on September 17th, 1796. George Washington had served two terms and he decided he was done. He had certain things he wanted to stay in place. He wanted United States to avoid conflicts. He didn't want permanent alliances. He believed temporary alliances were okay. -
Bank of the United States
The Bank of the United States was the first bank of the United States , that opened in 1797. The federalists supported the bank. It was a depository for government funds and made loans. It was built to stabilize currency and economy. It also had private investors. The bank sets of constitutionality issues. Washington ends up siding with Hamilton and the bank is chartered. -
Cotton Gin
Invented by Eli Whitney, the cotton gin that was popular in the South. The South became the cotton producing part of the country because Whitney's cotton gin. -
Period: to
The Age of Jefferson
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Louisiana Purchase
Jefferson bought Louisiana in 1803 for 15 million dollars. Jefferson wanted nation of farmers. He was afraid Napoleon would back out of the offer. He buys the land for less than 3 cents an acre. He will secure the Mississippi River, and doubled the size of the nation. -
Hamilton V.S. Burr
The duel, Hamilton v.s. Burr happened on July 11th, 1804. Around this time duels were illegal. Burr was vice president. Hamilton lets Burr take the first shot, and Burr fatally wounds Hamilton. The Federalist main leader is dead, and Burr will become an outlaw. -
The Embargo Act
The Embargo Act was enforced in 1807. It deprived Britain and France of American goods. It was very unpopular in seaports. After Jefferson's presidency ends, Madison will inherit the act. It will be a big problem, because the act hurts the economy. -
Steamboats
Steamboats started to appear on western rivers in 1807. They were a quicker and efficient way for transportation. -
Waltham System
A labor and production model employed in the United States, particularly in New England, during the early years of the American textile industry. They lived on sight of job and payed for housing. -
Hartford Convention
The Hartford Convention was from December 15th, 1814 to January 5th, 1815. It was primarily federalists. The Federalists threaten to breakup the union. They wanted to strengthen New England's political position. They also wanted to repeal the 3/5 compromise. The federalists end as a political party and are seen as traitors. -
Battle of New Orleans
The Battle of New Orleans started in 1815. Andrew Jackson defeated the British Army with bi-racial ragtag army. The war was technically over when the battle was fought. Because of the victory, Andrew Jackson became a house hold name. -
Period: to
The American Industrial Revolution
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Rush-Bagot Treaty
In the Rush-Bagot Treaty the United States and Britain limit weapons. They use the 49th parallel which is the borderline between United States and Canada. They will agree to jointly occupy Oregon Territory. -
Panic of 1819
America had an economic boom after the war of 1812. The founding of the Second Bank of the United States fueled economic expansion and speculation. Agriculture prices collapsed in 1819, and the banks failed. The economy went into a tailspin and started to decline. This was one of the worst depressions in the United States history. It was the first major peacetime financial crisis in the United States followed by a general collapse of the American economy persisting through 1821. -
Temperance
The Temperance movement is a social movement against the consumption of alcoholic beverages. -
The Second Great Awakening
The second great awakening was a protestant religious revival during the early 19th century in the United States. The Second Great awakening led to the establishment of reform movements to address injustices and alleviate suffering such as the Temperance Movement, the Women's suffrage Movement and the Abolitionist Movement in which people advocated for emancipation on religious grounds. Emphasized religious romanticism, made religion pretty, art. -
Period: to
Cultural Change
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Steam Engine
Steam power is one of the most important things in the American Industrial Revolution. the creation of the steam engine created many additions to the technology of this time, including steam powered locomotives which are vehicles that run on rails or tracks and are powered by steam. -
Election of 1824
The United States presidential election of 1824 was the tenth quadrennial presidential election. John Quincy won the election. -
Period: to
Age of Jackson
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Presidency of John Quincy Adams
John Quincy Adams was an American statesman who served as a diplomat, United States Senator, member of the House of Representatives. -
Election of 1828
It was the first modern election of what we are today. The election promoted democratic values. It was the 11th quadrennial presidential election. Andrew Jackson won the election. -
Eastern State Penitentiary
The Eastern State penitentiary was the biggest and most expensive former American prison site in Pennsylvania that was known for its strict discipline. It was a prison designed to inspire penitence, or true regret in the hearts of prisoners because Pennsylvania didn't want the punishment of prisoners to be death. In this jail they made the prisoners labor hard. The jails eventually became a detention site instead of a death sentence for people who have done wrong or have mental illnesses. -
Mormons
The mormons were the church of jesus christ of latter day saints. Joseph Smith found the golden tablets in 1823, written in ancient language only he could decipher. It appealed to farmers and traders, as well as people who didn't do well in the new market economy. -
Nat Turner Rebellion
Nat Turner's rebellion was a slave rebellion that took place in Southampton, Virginia in 1831. Nat Turner and a few other slaves killed between fifty-five and sixty-five people starting with his white slave owners, the Travis family. The result of the revolt was that it caused greater fear and stricter enforcement of the slave codes by southern whites. Nat Turner ran away, and when found he was tried, convicted, and hung. -
Cherokee
Where the cherokee lived Gold found. Indian Removal Act of 1830, gave power to president to exchange Indian land. In Worcester vs. George Cherokees have the right to govern for sovereign nation. Under orders from President Jackson the U.S. Army began enforcement of the Removal Act. Cherokees were forced to leave and rounded up to go to Tennessee, Ohio, Mississippi and Arkansas Rivers into Indian Territory. Many died of starvation and diseases along the way. -
Nullification Crisis
Congress raises import taxes, tariff act of 1832, put a tax on textiles, clothing. South Carolina was affected and it hurts the southern agriculture. John Calhoun, vice president, advocated the nullifying law and took Kentucky Resolutions farther. he resigned from vice president over this. In the Webster- Haynes Debate, Webster attacked states rights. Denied states could judge constitutions. -
John C Calhoun
John C. Calhoun was the seventh vice president of the United States from 1825 to 1832. Calhoun defended slavery and states rights as a congressman, senator, secretary of war, secretary of state, and vice-president. He had political differences with President Andrew Jackson and a desire to fill a vacant Senate seat in South Carolina, therefore John C. Calhoun becomes the first vice president in the United States. history to resign the office. -
Election of 1832
The democratic party had Jackson to represent and the national republicans had Henry Clay to represent them. The anti-masonic party had William Hint to represent them. They started nomination conventions and part platforms. -
Siege of Bexar
The Siege of Bexar, also known as the Alamo, happened from October 12th, 1835 to December 11th, 1835. The Siege of Bexar was an early campaign of the Texas Revolution in which a volunteer Texian army defeated Mexican forces at San Antonio de Bexar. -
Battle of Gonzales
This was occurred October 2nd, 1835. The Battle of Gonzales was the very first military engagement of the Texas Revolution. -
Battle of San Jacinto
In the Battle of San Jacinto, Sam Houston surprises Santa Anna. The battle lasts less than 20 minutes. Santa Anna is captured and signs the Treaty of Velasco. Texas will be an independent nation. -
Period: to
Westward Expansion
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Telegraph
The telegraph was invented by Samuel Morse May of 1844. The telegraph revolutionized long distance communication by transmitting electrical signals over a wire laid between stations. Samuel Morse also came up with a form of communication called the Morse code, which is a set of dots and/or dashes for each letter of the alphabet to transfer complex messages through the lines. -
Manifest Destiny
Manifest Destiny was a term for the attitude present during the 19th century period of American expansion that the United States and its settlers not only could, but was destined to and should be a continent that stretch from the coast to coast. This attitude In America helped fuel western settlement, Native American removal, and war with Mexico. Although, it had an impact of making the U.S. much wealthier and larger, the Native Americans and Mexico was loosing land. -
Mexican American War
The Mexican–American War, also known as the Mexican War and in Mexico the American intervention in Mexico, was an armed conflict between the United States of America and the United Mexican States. -
Mexican- American War
The Mexican–American War, also known as the American intervention in Mexico, was an armed conflict between the United States of America and the United Mexican States from 1846 to 1848. The United States won the war and Mexico signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. The treaty gave the U.S. lands that would become the states of Arizona, California, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, southwestern Colorado, and southwestern Wyoming. -
Wilmot Proviso
On August 8th, 1846, Wilmot Proviso was enforced. It was one of the results of the Mexican-American War. It was a proposal to ban slavery in territory acquired from mexico. It was a political firestorm, and was defeated in congress. Because of this plan, the democrats and whigs will split into pro-slavery and free-soil factions. -
66) Seneca Falls Convention
The Seneca Falls Convention was held in 1848, New York and was the first women's convention that discussed and fought for the civil, social,and religious rights of women.The Seneca Falls Convention was the meeting that launched the women's suffrage movement which later ensured the right for women to vote.Their was a total of 300 men and women.Declaration of sentiments and resolutions. Secure rights in economics and voting, the media was mostly negative.The convention was cornerstone -
The Election of 1848
It was the 16th quadrennial presidential election. It was won by Zachary Taylor of the Whig Party, who ran against Lewis Cass of the Democratic Party. -
78) California Gold Rush
The California Gold Rush occurred in 1848 when thousands migrated when gold was found in California. There was 200,000 people by 1852. Gold was easy to find. Mining will began in 1852. They had various supporting industries like tools, washing and selling clothes, food, as well as alcohol. -
Period: to
Sectionalism
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Chinese Migration
There were 45,000 by 1854. They worked in the worst mines. They also faced racism, because they took white people jobs. -
Compromise of 1850
The Compromise of 1850 consisted of 5 separate bills. California enters as a free state. New Mexico and Utah have the right to decide on slavery, popular sovereignty. Texas relinquishes disputed western lands. The federal government took over Texas debt. Slave trade is also banned in Washington D.C. -
Fugitive Slave Act
The Fugitive Slave Act was enforced in 1850. It created commissioners for returning slaves. Fugitives had no right to trial. Whites could also be jailed and fined for refusing to help. -
Railroads
In the 1850's, railroads were a faster and cheaper way of transporting materials from one place to another which helped factories produce goods faster . It was one of the most important things in the Industrial Revolution because it brought social, political, and economic change to the United States. -
Kansas- Nebraska Act
The Kansas-Nebraska Act was enforced in 1854. Southerners were afraid of 2 new free states. Southerners wanted to abolish the Missouri Compromise.They wanted the transcontinental railroad to run through the south, not the north. Stephen Douglas introduced the bill and Kansas was a slave state, while Nebraska was free. -
Bleeding Kansas
The Bleeding Kansas era started in 1855. Abolitionists financed settlement of Kansas. Proslavery interests recruited illegal voters in Kansas elections. Pro-slavery government and Anti-slavery government will be established. -
North
North had a population of 22 million. They housed 110,000 factories and a 1.5 million dollar industry. Ninety-seven percent of it is weapons manufacturing. Ninety-four percent of it is clothing and ninety percent of it is shoes and boots. They were fighting to uphold the constitution. -
South
The south had a population of 5.5 million and 3.5 million slaves. They housed 18,000 factories, with a 155 million dollar industry. Three percent of it was weapons manufacturing. They had about 9,000 miles of track for railroads. -
Trent Affair
The Trent Affair occurred in 1861. The Confederates sent diplomats to Europe. The USS San Jacinto intercepts the RMS Trent. Britain demands an apology. Lincoln releases confederate diplomats because it should've never happened. Lincoln sends U.S. diplomats and secure British and French neutrality. -
The Battle of Bull Run
The Battle of Bull Run, also know as Battle of Manasses, was the first major battle in 1861. Thirty thousand union troops, Army of Potoman, will march south. It was a humiliating defeat for the Union. The Union troops flee to D.C. -
Period: to
The Civil War
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Battle of Antietam
The Battle of Antietam, also known as the Battle of Sharpsburg, particularly in the Southern United States, was fought near Sharpsburg, Maryland and Antietam Creek as part of the Maryland Campaign. -
Emancipation Proclamation
The Emancipation Proclamation was enforced in 1863 by Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln declared slaves free unless rebellion ends by January 1st, 1865. It was a moral boost. The proclamation stops Britain from entering war in the South side. The border states are allowed to keep their slaves. -
Election of 1864
In the Election of 1864, Lincoln was afraid he would lose the election. The northerners were weary of war. Northern democrats attack Lincoln's wartime setbacks. Democrats nominate George McClellan instead. Sherman's capture of Atlanta gave Lincoln a boost. Lincoln wins the election fairly easily. -
Period: to
Reconstruction
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Election of 1866
In the Election of 1866, reconstruction is made through legislation. It over rode Johnson's reconstruction plan. It also divides the south into five military districts, and all males could vote. -
Election of 1868
The presidential election of 1868 was the first election to take place during Reconstruction. President Andrew Johnson, who has ascended President Lincoln following his assassination in 1865, was unsuccessful in his attempt to receive the democratic presidential nomination. Instead the Democrats nominated Horatio Seymour to take on the republic candidate, Civil War hero General Ulysses S. Grant. Grant won a large amount of the electoral votes as well as the popular votes. -
Sharecroppers
The south had six percent of national industrial output. Rice, tobacco, sugar, and cotton was the rest of the Southern economy. Cotton prices fell drastically due to overproduction. Many forced to quit their farms and became tenant farmers. They paid rent by giving owner 1/3 to 1/2 of the harvest. -
Panic of 1873
The Panic of 1873, sets booming economy back until 1877. African Americans become less important because of the panic. Democrats are voted into office in 1874. Grant reduces efforts in policing south. -
Election of 1876
In the Election of 1876, Samuel Tilden, democrat, goes against Rutherford Hayes, republican. The issues were reconstruction, corruption and economy. The popular vote went to Tilden. The electoral votes were unclear. -
Compromise of 1877
In the Compromise of 1877, Hayes will be given all the electoral votes. Hayes agreed to end reconstruction. He removed the federal troops from the South. It was the beginning of total suppression for southern blacks. -
Jim Crow
The segregation laws, knows as Jim Crow, represented a formal, codified system of racial aparthied that dominated the American south for many years. The laws affected almost every aspect of daily life, mandating segregation of schools, parks, libraries, drinking fountains, restrooms, buses, trains, and resturants. "whites only" and "colored" signs were constant reminders of the enforced racial order.
