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Italian painter, draftsman, sculptor, architect, and engineer whose skill and intelligence, perhaps more than that of any other figure, epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal. His Last Supper (1495–98) and Mona Lisa (c. 1503–19) are among the most widely popular and influential paintings of the Renaissance. His notebooks reveal a spirit of scientific inquiry and a mechanical inventiveness that were centuries ahead of their time.https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leonardo-da-Vinci
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Mehmed launched a massive go-for-broke, throw-everything-at-them assault at dawn on 29 May. to the usual cannon barrage, then a second wave was launched with better-armed troops finally, a third wave attacked the walls. They climbed to the top of the wall and raised the Ottoman flag, then they worked their way around to the main gate and allowed their comrades to flood into the city. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1180/1453-the-fall-of-constantinople/ -
Originated a method of printing from movable type. Elements of his invention are thought to have included a metal alloy that could melt readily and cool quickly to form durable reusable type, an oil-based ink that could be made sufficiently thick to adhere well to metal type and transfer well to vellum or paper, and a new press, likely adapted from those used in producing wine, oil, or paper, for applying firm even pressure to https://www.britannica.com/biography/Johannes-Gutenberg -
At the end of the middle ages, in the XV century, the Iberian peninsula was made up of the kingdoms of Portugal, Castilla, Aragon, Navarra and the Muslim kingdom of Granada. The war of succession, after the death of the King of Castilla, Enrique IV, and between Juana La Beltraneja and Isabel, ended with the victory at the battle of Toro. The Castillian court recognised the marriage between Isabel and Fernando. https://historyofspain.es/en/video/the-catholic-kings-in-the-history-of-spain/
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Michelangelo was a sculptor, painter and architect widely considered to be one of the greatest artists of the Renaissance—and arguably of all time. His work demonstrated a blend of psychological insight, physical realism and intensity never before seen.Michelangelo received commissions from some of the most wealthy and powerful men of his day, including popes and others affiliated with the Catholic Church.https://www.history.com/topics/renaissance/michelangelo
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The navigator Christopher Columbus, funded by the Spanish Crown, sailed westward from Spain in hopes of finding a new sea route to South and Southeast Asia. Despite initially believing he had reached Asia, Columbus soon realised that he had happened upon a wholly new continent, the land we know now to be America. Whilst this was not the aim of his voyage, this discovery served to bring far greater benefits to not only Spain.https://manchesterhistorian.com/2017/the-discovery-of-america/ -
The 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas neatly divided the "New World" into land, resources, and people claimed by Spain and Portugal. The red vertical line cutting through eastern Brazil represents the divide. The treaty worked out well for the Spanish and Portuguese empires, but less so for the 50 million people already living in established communities in the Americas.https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/treaty-tordesillas/ -
Queen of Castile from 1504 to 1555, during which time Spain became a world power, who never actually ruled due to her own mental instability and the greed for power of her father, husband, and son. Her parents trained Juana in more than the domestic arts and religious piety appropriate to a princess. They intended to marry her to one of Western Europe's royal families. https://www.encyclopedia.com/women/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/juana-la-loca-1479-1555
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John Calvin was a French lawyer, theologian, and ecclesiastical statesman who lived in the 1500s. He was the most important figure in the second generation of the Protestant Reformation. https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Calvin
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Ninety-five Theses, propositions for debate concerned with the question of indulgences, written (in Latin) and possibly posted by Martin Luther. This event came to be considered the beginning of the Protestant Reformation. He had no intention of breaking from the Catholic church, assuming that his call for theological and ecclesiastical reform would be heard, and ordinarily his theses would have been of interest only to professional theologians.https://www.britannica.com/event/Ninety-five-Theses -
Charles was accordingly crowned king of Germany in Aachen.Martin Luther had to defend his theses, assembled at Worms. The reformer’s appearance represented a first challenge to Charles, beginning with a sweeping invocation, read out to the Diet. After Luther refused to recant the substance of his writings, Charles drew up the Edict of Worms. With it, he rejected Luther’s doctrines and essentially declared war on Protestantism. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-V-Holy-Roman-emperor
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Act of Supremacy, (1534) English act of Parliament that recognized Henry VIII as the “Supreme Head of the Church of England.” The act also required an oath of loyalty from English subjects that recognized his marriage to Anne Boleyn. It was repealed in 1555 under Mary I, but in 1559 Parliament adopted a new Act of Supremacy during the reign of Elizabeth. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Act-of-Supremacy-England-1534 -
The council was highly important for its sweeping decrees on self-reform and for its dogmatic definitions that clarified virtually every doctrine contested by the Protestants. Despite internal strife and two lengthy interruptions, the council was a key part of the Counter-Reformation and played a vital role in revitalizing the Roman Catholic Church in many parts of Europe.https://www.britannica.com/event/Council-of-Trent -
Philip barely resided in England as prince consort, since, in 1556, he inherited the Crowns of Castile (including America) and Aragon, Sicily, Sardinia and the territories of Burgundy from his father. Mary died without descendants in November 1558 and she was succeeded by her sister Elizabeth, recognized by the, at that time, King Felipe II immediately. https://thediplomatinspain.com/en/2017/07/felipe-ii-englands-prince-consort-before-his-reign-in-spain/
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Neither Philip III nor Lerma was emotionally or intellectually capable of the fundamental reappraisal of foreign policy that Philip II’s failures required. Very few even of the arbitristas had seen this need sufficiently clearly. The court, the nobility, and, above all, the clergy and the king’s confessors remained caught in the now-hardening tradition of Spanish imperialism, simplistically interpreted as the cause of God. https://www.britannica.com/place/Spain/The-reign-of-Philip-III
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Diego Velázquez was one of the most important Spanish painters of the 17th century, a giant of Western art. He had a keen eye and a prodigious facility with the brush. His works often show strong modeling and sharp contrasts of light, resembling the dramatic lighting technique called tenebrism.https://www.britannica.com/biography/Diego-Velazquez
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He succeeded his father,in 1621, Philip’s valido, or chief minister, was the Conde-Duque de Olivares, who took the spread of the Thirty Years’ War as an opportunity not only for resuming hostilities against the Dutch at the end of the Twelve Years’ Truce of 1609 (1621) but also for an ambitious attempt to restore Spanish hegemony in Europe, in close alliance with the imperial branch of the Habsburg dynasty. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Philip-IV-king-of-Spain-and-Portugal
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Charles II is known in Spanish history as El Hechizado - "The Bewitched" - from the popular belief (to which Charles himself subscribed) that his physical and mental disabilities were caused by "sorcery" rather than the much more obvious cause - centuries of inbreeding within the Hapsburg dynasty, in which marriage matches between uncles/nieces and between 1st cousins were commonly used https://www.geni.com/people/Carlos-II-de-Espa%C3%B1a/6000000000840743803
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War of the Spanish Succession, (1701–14), arose out of the disputed succession to the throne of Spain following the death of Charles II, the last of the Spanish Habsburgs. The war was primarily a struggle to determine whether the vast possessions of the Spanish Empire should pass to the House of Bourbon or to the House of Habsburg, both of which had dynastic claims, to preserve the balance of power in Europe.https://www.britannica.com/event/War-of-the-Spanish-Succession
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The French Revolution was a period of major social upheaval that began in 1787 and ended in 1799. It sought to completely change the relationship between the rulers and those they governed and to redefine the nature of political power. It proceeded in a back-and-forth process between revolutionary and reactionary forces.https://www.britannica.com/event/French-Revolution