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Before the printing press, books and documents were laboriously copied by hand, making them scarce and expensive. The printing press allowed for the mass production of books and other printed materials, making them more affordable and accessible to a wider range of people. -
Leonardo da Vinci was an Italian polymath who is widely considered one of the greatest geniuses in human history. He was a painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, inventor, anatomist, musician, and philosopher, among other things.Leonardo is best known for his iconic paintings, including the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. He designed flying machines, military weapons, and water pumps, among other things, and his innovative ideas continue to inspire scientists and engineers to this day. -
The siege of Constantinople began on April 6, 1453, when the Ottoman army, led by Sultan Mehmed II, laid siege to the city. The Byzantine defenders, led by Emperor Constantine XI, put up a fierce resistance, but they were ultimately overwhelmed by the Ottoman forces.The fall of Constantinople had significant consequences for Europe and the wider world ultimately leading to the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus in 1492. -
Michelangelo Buonarroti was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet who is widely regarded as one of the greatest artists of all time. He was a prominent figure of the Italian Renaissance and his works had a profound influence on Western art. Michelangelo is perhaps best known for his sculptures, Michelangelo's work is characterized by a focus on the human form, a dramatic use of light and shadow, and a profound emotional depth -
The discovery of America refers to the historical event when Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer sailing under the sponsorship of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, first arrived in the Americas. The discovery of America had far-reaching consequences, including the colonization of the Americas by European powers, the exchange of goods, people, and ideas between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres , and the reshaping of societies, cultures, and economies on both sides of the Atlantic. -
The Treaty of Tordesillas was signed on June 7, 1494, between Spain and Portugal to divide the newly discovered lands of the world outside Europe between them. This treaty was negotiated by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand II, and King John II of Portugal, in the Castilian town of Tordesillas. The treaty was an attempt to resolve a dispute between the two countries over claims to the newly discovered lands in the Americas. -
Juana I of Castilla, also known as Joanna the Mad, was queen of Castile from 1504 until her death in 1555. Juana's reign was marked by her struggles with her husband, Philip the Handsome of Austria, who attempted to assert control over the kingdom. Her mental instability, which earned her the nickname "the Mad," further complicated matters, and Philip took advantage of her condition to increase his power.Juana's reign was also characterized by political rivalries. -
John Calvin was a French theologian and pastor who became one of the most important figures in the Protestant Reformation.He studied law, but became interested in theology and embraced Protestantism.He became a pastor in Geneva, Switzerland, and was a leader of the Reformation.Calvin's theology emphasized the sovereignty of God and the idea of predestination, which holds that God has already determined who will be saved and who will be damned. -
Carlos V was a Holy Roman Emperor who reigned from 1519 to 1556,was the son of Philip the Handsome.Carlos V was a staunch defender of Catholicism, and he worked to suppress the spread of Protestantism in his domains.Carlos V abdicated from the throne in 1556,and he retired to a monastery in Yuste, Spain, where he died on September 21, 1558. His reign was marked by political and religious conflict, but he left a lasting legacy as one of the most powerful monarchs of the early modern period. -
German theologian and priest,wrote a document known as the 95 Theses that became one of the most significant events in the history of Christianity.Luther's 95 Theses challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and called for a return to the teachings of the Bible.On 1517,Luther posted his 95 Theses on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg,Germany,a common practice at the time for inviting public debate The Theses quickly spread throughout Germany and Europe,thanks to the printing press -
The Act of Supremacy was passed as a result of Henry VIII's desire to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon and marry Anne Boleyn, which was not permitted by the Catholic Church.The Act of Supremacy had far-reaching consequences for the Church of England and for English history in general. It led to the establishment of the Church of England as a separate entity from the Roman Catholic Church,and it paved the way for the English Reformation. Remained in force until the reign of Queen Mary I -
The Council of Trent was a major ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church held in Trento, Italy, between 1545 and 1563. Its primary purpose was to address the Protestant Reformation and to reform the Church's teachings and practices. The Council of Trent is considered one of the most important events in the history of the Catholic Church, and its decisions had a profound impact on the Church's doctrine and discipline. -
Felipe II, was the King of Spain from 1556 until his death in 1598. He was the son of Emperor Charles V and inherited a vast empire that included Spain, the Netherlands, and large territories in Italy and the Americas.During his reign, Felipe II was known for his strict adherence to Catholicism and his efforts to maintain Catholic orthodoxy throughout his realm. He was also a patron of the arts and under his patronage, the Spanish Golden Age of literature and art flourished. -
Felipe III, also known as Philip III, was the King of Spain from 1598 until his death in 1621. He was the son of Felipe II and inherited a vast empire that included Spain, the Netherlands, and large territories in Italy and the Americas. During his reign, Felipe III continued his father's policies of enforcing Catholic orthodoxy and expanding the Spanish Empire. However, his reign was also marked by a decline in Spanish power and influence, particularly in Europe. -
Diego Velázquez was a Spanish painter. Velázquez went on to become the court painter for King Philip IV of Spain, and he created many portraits of the king and his family. He is also known for his scenes of everyday life, such as his famous painting "Las Meninas," which depicts a group of people, including the young Infanta Margarita, in the presence of the king and queen.Some of Velazquez's most famous works include "Las Meninas," "The Surrender of Breda," and "Portrait of Pope Innocent X." -
Felipe IV, also known as Philip IV, was the King of Spain from 1621 until his death in 1665. He was the son of Felipe III and continued his father's policies of enforcing Catholic orthodoxy and expanding the Spanish Empire. During his reign, Felipe IV faced numerous challenges, including economic and political problems, as well as conflicts with other European powers. However, he also oversaw a flourishing of Spanish art and culture, particularly in the areas of painting and literature. -
Carlos II, also known as Charles II, was the last Habsburg king of Spain. He was born in 1661 and ascended to the throne in 1665 at the age of four, following the death of his father Felipe IV. Carlos II's reign was marked by a decline in Spanish power and influence, as well as political and economic instability. Some of the key events and accomplishments of Carlos II's reign include:
The War of Devolution
The War of the Spanish Succession
The decline of Spanish power
he patronage of the arts -
he War of the Spanish Succession was a major European conflict that lasted from 1701 to 1714. The war was fought over the disputed succession to the Spanish throne, following the death of King Carlos II of Spain in 1700. The conflict involved most of the major European powers, including Spain, France, Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Austria The lack of a clear successor to the Spanish throne
The fear of a French-Spanish union
The Grand Alliance
Military campaigns
The Treaty of Utrecht -
The French Revolution was a period of political and social upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799. The revolution was marked by a series of events and changes that fundamentally altered the political and social landscape of France, and had a profound impact on the rest of Europe and the world. The Estates-General and the Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789
The Reign of Terror in 1793-1794
The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799
The impact on Europe and the world