-
The Black Death was caused by bacteria in fleas that was regurgitated into human blood when the flea bit a human. The disease arrived in October when Genoese trading ships docked at an Italian port. This plague killed almost one third of Europe's population.
-
Revival of classical culture in Italy between 1350 to 1550.This period of time was characterized by humanism and secularism.
-
John Hus opposed the church, which at the time executed people who had a non-Latin Bible. He beilieved people should be able to read the Bible in their own language. He was excommunicated in 1411 and burned at the stake in 1415. the Council of Constance also got rid of all popes in orer to end the Great Schism. Martin V ended the Great Schism and was appointed pope in november of 1417.
-
This era is characterized by the discovery of new lands and trading. The New World was discovered in this time period and the Columbian Exchange occured.
-
The Fall of Constantinople was the end of the Byzantine empire which was captured by the Ottoman Empire under the rulof of sultan Mehmed II. He made Constanitnople the new capital of the Ottoman Empire. After the city fell, many intellectuals fled to Italy. The end of the Hundred Year's War was signaled by the French victory in keeping Bordeaux. Joan of Arc was burned at the stake at the end of the war.
-
The printing press was invented by Johannes Gutenberg. His invention enabled the faster production of books and the process was much more effecient. It played a big role in the spread of ideas since the Protestant Reformation was going on at the time. Gutenberg created his own ink as well.
-
Granada was a kingdom of Moors in south Spain ruled by King Boabdil. All the Spanish Muslims had been pushed down there and the king and queen of Spain did not tolerate a different religion and they wanted their land back. Eventually King Boabdil surrendered to the Spanish forces. Later in 1502, the king and queen of Spain forced Muslims to convert to Christianity.
-
Christopher Columbus' voyage to "Asia" was funded by Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castille. He wanted to sail west from Europe to Asia but he reached one of the Bahamian islands. For about 5 months he explored the Caribbean looking for things to take back to the king and Queen of Spain such as precious metals and spices. Finally in March of 1493 he sailed back to spain leaving some of his men on the island Hispaniola.
-
During this period of time there is much scientific growth as well as religious conflict.
-
During this period in time, Spain had an increasing demand for goods. Prices kept increasing and the government could not levy more taxes because that would interfere with the public's ability to buy things.
-
The Catholic church is divided and experiences a loss of power because the Protestant Reformation takes place. The leader of the Protestant Reformation was a man named Martin Luther who started the Reformation in 15717.
-
Martin posted the 95 Theses becuase he opposed the selling of indulgences. He knew that the church was corrupted becuase he believed that God could forgive sins. This eventually led to the Reformation.
-
In 1519 Hernan Cortes landed in Veracruz. He marched on towards the capital making alliances along the way and eventually they took Moctezuma hostage. Since the natives had no immunity agaisnt smallpox, a disease the Spanish brought along with them, the Spanish were able to capture the city after 4 months. When the Aztec Empire collapsed, the Spanish took control of Notrthen Mexico and he claimed it for Spain.
-
This era is characterized by much religious intolerance. Religion was not the only cause for these wars
-
Essentially the Anglican Church was created by King Henry VIII. He wanted to divorce his wife Catherine of Aragon because she did not give him a son. He requested a divorce but the Catholic Church did not approve of this . Therefore, King Henry issued the Act of Supremacy which declared him as the head of the chruch of England allowing him to divorce Catherine of Aragon. Then he married his next wife Anne Boleyn who also did not give him a son. She gave Henry a daughter named Elizabeth.
-
John Calvin brought Calvinism to Geneva in 1536. He created Calvinism which was a militant form fo Protestantism. Eventually it replaced Lutheranism as the international for of Protestantism. Calvin kept two of the sacraments- the Lord's Supper and baptism. Calvin also taught that there were 3 things that indicated possible salvation- communion, baptism, and open profession of faith. In Geneva he preached and he was eventually appointed pastor.
-
The Catholic Church had always taught the geocentric theory. This theory stated that the Earth was the center of the universe. When Nicolaus Copernicus suggested the heliocentric theory, even the Protestant reformers attacked it. The heliocentric theory claimed that the sun was actually the center of the universe therefore oppposing what the church taught. However, the Catholic chruch did not denounce this theory until Galileo started bringing more attention to it.
-
New discoveries were made and there were advances in medicine and chemistry. The church lost power because of new discoveries that contradicted what it had always taught.
-
The Council of Trent suggested by Pope Paul III helped with the Catholic Reformation. The Council reaffirmed the seven sacraments and transubstantiation. The Council of Trent also rejected Protestant teachings in all subjects and upheld the Latin Mass. It also explained the sacrificial meaning of Mass more specifically.
-
The Dutch establish the Dutch East India Compnay which causes competition for the English. Also, Amsterdam becomes the bamking center of Europe.
-
The New World was still being explored and conquered. Europe was still experiencing religious conflicts.
-
The Peace of Augsburg was created by the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire and agreed to by Emperor Charles V. It was the first permanent document that called for the existance of both Catholicism and Lutheranism in Germany. It helped to increase stability in Germany. Charles V abdicated his claims to the Netherlands and Spain to his son Philip II and claimed his brother Ferdinand I as the new emperor. Charles retired to a monastery.
-
The Berlin wall was a symbol of the Cold War that divided Europe. It divided East Germany from West Germany for 28 years and was built by the East German authorities.
-
Women were the main victims of witch trials. Msot accused people were turned over to secular authorites and were often hanged and tortured or burned at the stake. More than 100,000 people were prosecuted charged with witchcraft.
-
Spain sent the Spanish Armada to take control of the English Channel in order to be able to transport an army through there. However, the English fought back by bombarding the Spanish ships. The leaders of the English Navy were Lord Charles Howard and Sir Francis Drake. The fighting lasted about 8 hours and finally ended because there was a change in wind direction and the Spanish were running out of essential supplies.
-
The Edict of Nantes was a treaty that ended the French Wars of Religion which had been going on since 1562. It granted civil rights and religious liberty to the Huguenots. It was revoked by the Sun King in 1688 which caused more than 400,000 Huguenots to move to England.
-
This was a type of art that used dramatic effects to arouse the emotions and reflected search for power and was encouraged by the Catholic chruch.
-
This was a period of time in which mercantilism, general commerce, colonialism, and non-manufacturing pursuits increased.
-
The Dutch East India company was founded because the Dutch wanted to protect their trading rights in the Indian Ocean. The government gave the company a trade monopoly from the Cape of Good Hope and the Straits of Magellan. The company gave the Dutch commercial Empire more power. However the company was very in debt and so it dissolved at the end of the 18th century.
-
The first Stuart to rule was Mary queen of Scots. Her son James I was also King IV of Scotland which combined the thrones.His son Charles I is executed by Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell takes over and creates the Rump Parliament. Eventually when he dies, his son takes over but only for a short period of time because Charles II, son of Charles I, comes back to England with and army and restores the monarchy. The Stuart monarchy/line ends becuase the last queen has no heirs.
-
Parliament wanted to remain in control and they wanted to have the ability to levy taxes. This caused the Civil War in England which lasted from 1642-1648.
-
French absolutism orginiated under Louis XIV's reign and the central policy-making government was reconstructed.
-
The Peace of Westphalia is a series of treaties that ended the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman empire as well as the Eight Years' War which was between the Dutch and the Spanish. However, the peace did not last long. Spain went back to war but this time with the French until 1659.
-
Charles I was esecuted by Oliver Cromwell for treason. Cromwell later took over as the monarch and created the Rump Parliament. He declared himself Lord Protector and when he died, his son reigned for only about 7 months. Charles II, son of Charles I, came back with an arny and ascended the throne.
-
These wars were the result of a commercial rivalry between the English and the Dutch. The wars were fought over control of the seas and trade routes.
-
Prussia is involved in the Seven Year's War and they are allied with England. At the end of the war, Prussia gets to keep some of the land except Silesia.
-
Absolutism was a form a government in which the authority rested in the hands of a monarch who claimed to rule by divine right and was therefore responsible only to God. This was practiced by many monarchs including Louis XIV.
-
The Principia was his most important and famous work published, he had started writing it in the mid 1660's. This document contained his 3 laws of motion and his discoveries and observations about mechanics.
-
During his reign, Russia underwent drastic changes such as new administrative and territorial divisions of the nation. He created the Holy Synod and divided Russia into 8 provinces and changed the Russian alphabet. Peter wanted to Westernize Russia because it was culturally far behind compared to other countries so he produced the first Russian book of manners. His desire to westernize Russia benefitted women greatly.
-
The Glorious Revolution, also known as the Bloodless Revolution, occurred because James I was Catholic and this alienated most of the population. Therefore many politicians complained and they asked William III of Orange, James' nephew and son-in-law, to come wtih an army to correct this. He did and James I fled to France. Mary II and William took over and William created a new Parliament.
-
Russia takes part in the Sven Year's War with Catherine the Great as the ruler. In 1760, Russia took Berlin as a territory but they lost it when Peter the Great gave all territories back.
-
The Bank of England is the second oldest central bank in the world. It was the governor's bank as well as England's central bank. It was founded becasue the nation did not have a system for credit or for controlling money. The bank managed the government's debt and it was a commercial establishment.
-
The rise of the middle class in society was partially due to capitalism. The people in the middle class were known as the Bourgeoisie and they were normally merchants, artisans, tax collectors, etc.
-
The Enlightenment was period of great growth in culture. The church kept losing power due to secularism and all institutions and systems of thought were subject to the rational, scientific way of thinking. Science played a very important role in society.
-
This was period of time in which tehcnological improvements were made and crop productivity increased. New methods of farming created better crop yields along with new inventions such as the horse-drawn seed drill.
-
The Peace of Utrecht was a series of treaties that ended the War of Austrian Succession. It also ended French expansion and signaled the rise of the British Empire. King Louis XIV, the Sun King, died on the first of September in 1715 at the Palace of Versailles. His reign ended after 72 years, the longest in France. The cause of his death was gangrene.
-
This style of art was light, elaborate, and decoractive style which was mostly popular in France while Louis XV reigned. It came after Baroque art and was later replaced by Neoclassicism.
-
The War of Austrian Succession began because Frederick the Great violated pragmatic sanction and invaded Silesia. Since he was able to invade Silesia, other European countries belived it was defenseless and they decided to get involved in the war too. The war started the tension between France and Britain.
-
This period is characterized by changes in transportation, agriculture, and manufacturing that changed socioeconomic andcultural conditions. It first started in Britain and continued to spread throughout Europe.
-
The Treaty of Paris ended the Seven Years' War as well as the French and Indian War in America. It ended the war between France, England, and Spain. The treaty declared that France had to end all claims to Canada and give Louisiana to Spain. Spain had to give Florida to Britain. Britain also gained Upper Canada and territories France had overseas.
-
The American Revolution resulted in the United States' independence from England. Freance entered the war to aid the colonists. Together they made the British surrender at Yorktown, Virginia in 1779. Adam Smith believed that the government should not be involved in economics and he published The Wealth of Nations. His work is fundamental for classical economics.
-
This was an age that experienced much political unrest and changes in social arrangements. The revolutions resulted in economic change.
-
The French Revolution started because King Louis XVI was so in debt that he did not know what to do other than levy a new tax. However, for this he had to call the Estates General which had not met in almost 175 years. This created an immediate struggle for power among the 3 estates and the third estate declared that it represented the people. The king did not like that and he tried to get rid of it but the members resisted and declared that they would not part until there was a new consitution.
-
Feminism was present during the Scietific Revolution when the women of that time wanted to take part in it. Mary Wallstonecraft is credited with being the founder of modern feminism. In the 1900's feminism kept growing but WW2 put a temporary stop to this movement.
-
Nationalism was the idea that the people who spoke the same language and shared a culture should form their own countries. It first started with a small group of elites and quickly spread to others. It was used for the unification of Italy as well as in Germany when nationalists tried to unify it so that Germany would be a nation governed by a parliament.
-
Wollenstonecraft is often viwed as the founfer of modern European feminism. In her book she pointed out two contradictions in the views of women held by some Enlightenment thinkers.
-
Napolean took control of France by first taking over the Consulate after the French Revolution. During his reign, France became a nationalist power and expanded its territory into Italy. By the beginning of the 19th century, Napolean had become so powerful that he declared himself Emperor. In 1815, he was exiled to Saint Helena where he died.
-
Romanticism was an intellectual, artisitc, and literary movement that praised imagination and emotions. It was essentially a revolt agisnt the social and political norms that had appeared during the Englightenment.
-
Napoleon abdicated by the Treaty of Fontainebleau. Louis XVIII became the new king of France and he accepted a Constitutional Charter and kept the Napoleonic Code. The Congress of Vienna reorganized Europe after the Napoleonic Wars.
-
Liberalism was a concept that was commited to the liberty of individuals including freedom of speech, press, religion, and assembly. It was developed in Western Europe in the nineteenth century and spread to the Americas.
-
The Revolution on 1830 was a Result of the king getting rid of the Chamber of Deputies, freedom of press, holding new elections into the Chamber and, modifying electoral laws. The people held armed confrontations and Charles X fled to England. The new king was Louis-Philippe. Belgium becmae independent from the Netherlands and Greece became independent from the Ottoman Empire.
-
The Revolutions of 1848 were a series of revolutions that started in Sicily in Januray 1848 and spread to France, the Austrian Empire, Germany, and Italy. The Communist Manifesto was written due to all the political turmoil in Europe before the middle of the 19th century.
-
During this era, Germany and Italy were unified.
-
Realism was a "truthful protrayal of life" and was often used in literature in the late nineteenth century. Materialism opposed religion and it was very popular in the nineteenth century.
-
Nationalism and liberalsim, two modern ideas, were influencing daily life more in Europe in this time period. Modernism was produced in this time period as well. Physics became more popular in the 20th century.
-
Modernism was huge at this point in history and so now society did not revolve around religion anymore. The concept of iconoclasm was developed during this period in time since society and culture changed at such a fast pace.
-
In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. the powerful nation of Europe started practicing imperialism. Imperialism promised each country economic growth and of course land. The more land a country had, the more powerful and superior it was.
-
This time period experienced the expansion of the use of steel, petroleum, and electricity. In the early 1800's, Great Britain was the first country to install a public power station. However by the 1900's one public power station could power an entire neighborhood.
-
The Crystal Palace was designed by Sir Joseph Paxton. the exhibition that was held there was an art exhibtion.
-
The British East India Company controled India but now it was theBrotish Crown that controled it. The Brish had direct and indirect control of Inida and they developed India's infrastructure.Eventually the Indian National Congress led an independence movement.
-
His book laid the foundation for modern botany, genetics, and cellular biology. By 1872, it already had 6 editions. Darwin died in 1882.
-
The movements that brought Italy together were the Risorgimento and Young Italy. Austria had territories in Italy and the French did too. At the time, Venetia was under Austria's rule and Rome's which was controlled by the Pope. In 1866, Italy and Prussia joined in a war against Austria and Italy was rewarded with Venetia. Italian forces took over Rome and made it the capital of Italy. In 1855 Alexander II knew he had to change the military and he removed serfdom to make Russia more stable.
-
Art was no longer very religious. Artisists started painting whatever interested them and they used more color and new techniques were devolped.
-
Bismark was the man who brought Germany together. The war had come down to Prussia vs France. PRussia won and Bismark declared the second German Empire and he crowned Wilhelm. Republican Parisians feared that the antional Assembly would restore the monarchy but only the Third Commune was left to oppose the Versailles Goverment and it failed. The Third Republic brought social stability and industrialization for France but it ended when France fell to the Germany in 1940.
-
The Berlin Conference was where Eueropean countries met to discuss the colonization of Africa. Before the conference, Africa was still ruled by the natives and Euopean colonizers mainly focused on the coast. However, the conference decided that only the Congo and the Niger rivers would be neautral and that Europeans could freely colonize Africa. It also set up the RPinciple of Effectivity.
-
It took Freud two years to write this book that explained the two levels of dreams. It explained the dream and the true meaning behind dreams. It also explained his theory of wish-fulfillment. This book was his most famous work and was produced in six more languages.
-
The Theory of Relativity determines that the laws of physics remain the same for all non-accelerating observers. He also showed the correlation between the speed of light and the speed at which an observer traveled. The reason for the revolution of 1905 was what was supposed to be a harmless peaceful protest. Father Gapon led the protest about the peoples' lifestyle. The goal of this was to ask Alexander II, the Tsar, for help so he issued October Manifesto after much turblulence.
-
There were several resistance movements throughout Europe. Many countries also experienced shortages in food and medicine.
-
On June 28, 1914, a serbian nationalist shot the Archduke Franz Ferdinand who was the heir to the trone of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. After the assasination, set off many events that led to World War I a month later.
-
The cause of the Bolshevik Revolution was the struggle most of the population of Russia was experiencing. Another factor was the Tsar, Nicholas II, who did not seem to realize how big the struggle was and the people lost faith in him. They were ready to rebel. The results of the war were industrial growth, educational reforms, and the end of autocracy.
-
The Treaty of Versailles was a peace treaty that formally ended the ongoing war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed 5 years after the assasination of the Archduke Frans Ferdinand on June 28.
-
Totalitarianism was first practiced in Italy, the Soviet Union, and Germany in the 20th century. It is essentially dictatorship.
-
Fascists wanted to reach the unification of Italy through an authoritarian state. Benito Mussolini was a fascist that took over Italy becasue the Fascists were the last source of hope for the Italians that did not want communism. The government was scared enough to allow Mussolini to form a new government. He also forced the Italian Parliament to give him emergency powers to shut down all other parties and he turned Italy into a fascist dictatorship.
-
This was an economic tragedy that occured in the decade before WWII began. It lasted a decade and is recognized as the longest economic downturn the Western industrialized world has ever experienced.
-
Hitler was a powerful speaker who attracted many Germans desperate for change. He and his Nazi party made many parties and appealed to many especially the young and the poor. His rise to power was easy because everyone wanted a new Germany since the Weimer Republic was weak and the Great Depression had put millions out of work.
-
Hitler had started to rearm Germany which went agaisnt the Treaty of Versailles and he annexed Austria in 1938. Now he wanted to seize a part of Czechoslovakia because it had a big German population and industrial resources. The Munich Conference permitted Germany to annex Sudeteland.
-
WWII began because France and Britain declared war of Germany for its invasion of Poland. Germany's invasion was what triggered the war but there were other casues as well.
-
The "superpowers" that participated in the Cold War divided Europe in two- Eastern (USSR) and Western (USA). During the Cold War Germany was divided.
-
The German and Italian unifications helped make nationalism bigger in Europe. Also the European Union was formed which helped unify Europe as a whole.
-
WWII ended when Japan finally surrendered on the USS Missouri. U.S. Army General Douglas MacArthur accepted Japan's surrender. The UN was founded after WWII ended by 51 countries that look to maintain worldwide peace and security.
-
NATO stands for North Atlantic Treaty Organization. It was created by the United Sates, Canada, and some WEstern European nations to provide security agaisnt the Soviet Union.
-
the ECSC was formed to integrate the coal and steel industries of Europe. When it was first formed it only included a few countries but it expanded to include all the members of the European Union and the European Economic Community. However, the treaty expired in 2002 and the ECSC was dissolved.
-
Joseph Stalin, former leader of the Soviet Union, died in Moscow from a heart attack. People remember him for having saved his nation from Nazi domination.
-
Khrushchev tried reforms in domestic and foreign policy. He lacked power and was recognized for having failed policy innovations in agriculture, industry, and politics. The Hungary revolt resulted in 30,000 deaths and 200,00 fleed west.
-
This treaty formed the EEC which was an international agreement between Belgium, Italy, France, the Netherlands, Luxemburg, and West Germany. It later becomes the EU. Sputnik was the first artifical satelite to be launched into space, it was launched by the Soviet Union on the 4th of October.
-
This was a system of government that de Gaulle was inaugurated into. In 1965, he became the first president to be elected by popular vote since 1848.
-
Th Cuban Missile Crisis was a result of the Soviet Union's placement of missiles in Cuba. President JFK made it clear that the US would not hesitate to use military power. However before anything happened, Khrushchev offered to remove the missiles if the US promised not to invade Cuba. The US agreed.
-
The second Vatican council was a means for spiritual renewal of the church and for Christians separated from Rome to reunite. Pope John XXIII announced the opening fot he council and encouraged the fathers to meet the pastoral needs of the church.
-
In capitalist countries these revolts were a turning point for the civil rights movement and there were protests agaisnt bureaucratic and military elites. The Prague Spring Revolts were and attempt to grant additional rights to the citizens of Czechslovakia.
-
These were an effort to reduce tension between the Soviet and Western blocs. They were an important aspect of the Cold War. They were signed at the Finnish capital.
-
He was the first non-Italian pope in over 400 years. He was an advocate for human rights and used his influence to change politics for the better. Saint John Paul II died in 2005 in Italy.
-
Soviet troops intervend in the to support the communist gov't. of Afghanistan in its conflict with anticommunist guerillas. The SU remained there until February. Margaret Thatcher was the first female prime minister of Britain.
-
This was a Polish trade union federation that was the first trade union not controlled by a communist party.
-
before being elected president in december 1990 he worked hard to eliminate the communist party's monopoly on power and established the Congress of Peoples' Deputies. The congress was elected by secret ballot.
-
The head of the East German Communist party announced that citizens could cross the border whenever they pleased. Some people brought hammers and picks to chip away at the wall which was one of the most powerful symbols of the Cold War.
-
The representatives from the 11 republics of the Soviet Union annouced ththe Soviet Union would no longer exist but would be replaced by a Commonwealth of Independent Sates. Due to the fall of the Soviet Union, Gorbachev resigned on Christmas Day that year.
-
The treaty was signed by the members of the European Community in Maastricht, Netherlands. It created the European Union.
-
Three days before I was born, the Euro was launched as a electronic currency. It wasnt untill I was almost 3 years old that the euro was used as a cash currency.
-
These were attacks that ocured in New York city by a terrorist group called al Qaeda. They were a series of airline attcks and they destroyed the Twin Towers.
