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Britain was a powerful country because it had enough coal, iron and steel for its own enormous industry, and could even export them in large quantities to Europe. With this material it could produce new heavy industrial goods like iron ships and steam engines. It could also make machinery which produced traditional goods. Britain made and owned more than half the world's total shipping. This great industrial empire was supported by a strong banking system developed during the 18th century
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In 1860 Britain held a leading position, and Russia a fall-back position. It dominated the world industrial production, it was a head of all other countries. Then it decreased from 1870 to 1939, and was out done by the USA, Germany and the USSR. In 1913, the USA took the leading position. France stagnated, it was in the doldrums.
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Faced with an explosive social and economic situation, Louis XVI decided to convene des États généraux
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The revolutionary period played a key role in the construction of french society for three reasons: it put an end to the particularities of France under the Old Regime, it led to an awareness of belonging to a national community, and sovereignty was transferred from the king to the nation
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Deputies of the third estate, joined by some members of the clergy and the nobility, declare themselves the National Assembly
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The members of the national assembly take an oath not to separate before having given a constitution to France
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Assertion of people power. The fortress considered impregnable is taken by a cohesion of small townspeople.
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Assertion of the power of countrysides.
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Abolition of feudal rights and privileges
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Founds a society of equal citizens
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Seek to affirm national harmony. Staging of the National Union
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Creates a constitutional monarchy which distributes powers between the king and the Assembly elected by suffrage.
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The king fled from Paris with his family. Arrested in Varennes, he is brought back to Paris. This leak discredits him with society.
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After the victory of Valmy, the new government abolishes the monarchy and establishes the First Republic. Three political regimes will then follow one another: the Convention, the Directory which was overthrown by the coup d'etat of 18 brumaire on 9 November, by Napoleon Bonaparte, who installed the consulate. The consulate promotes the return of political stability, economic growth and peace.
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People who don't show their love for the revolution are arrested, then executed.
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Following the first French defeats, Louis XVI is suspected of playing a double game
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Sans-culottes and federates seized the king's residence, the Chateau des Tuileries. The king takes refuge in the Assembly which decides his forfeiture: it is the fall of the monarchy. This leads to a radicalization of the revolution. The foreign provinces join the pruce to prevent the revolution from spreading in Europe. A civil war breaks out
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Reorganizes and unifies society. As well as that, it helps to standardize the law.
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Napoleon Bonaparte became emperor in 1804. Napoleon's regime took on a monarchical character. He wields an increasingly dictatorial power. The war resumes. National feelings are awakened in the face of the French occupier and Europe ends up turning against France. The country was invaded in 1814 and Napoleon had to abdicate
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Louis XVIII ascends the throne in the name of dynastic legitimacy. He established a constitutional monarchy on the British model. (Charter of 1814)
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A new Europe has been built since 1814, after the abolition of Napoleon Bonaparte, the Congress of Vienna takes place, which is responsible for restoring the monarchy according to a mixture of the old regime and the achievements of the revolution. The conservative congressional order is difficult to maintain as many people aspire to become free nations.
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In 1830, Les Trois glorieuses put an end to the restoration and established the July monarchy, finally the pritems of the peoples, another revolutionary wave where the order of Vienna was shaken because the peoples expressed their desire for freedom.
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The Charter is intended as a text of compromise, preserving many achievements of the Revolution and the Empire, by proclaiming equality between citizens, the abolition of privileges, individual freedom, personal safety and freedom of worship. The charter guarantees a certain balance between revolution and restoration
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His work was disrupted in March 1815 with the return to power of Napoleon which forces the allies to resume the war: it is the period of the Hundred Days, which ends by the definitive defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo on June 18. The order established by the Congress of Vienna is fragile and will be contested throughout the 19th century by revolts.
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The Quadruple Alliance organizes in September 1814 in Vienna, the largest international congress since 1648. All European states are represented except the Ottoman Empire.This congress aims to end the revolution and to rebuild Europe which has been profoundly upset by the wars waged by France.
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The Holy Alliance, France, the United Kingdom and Russia decide to intervene militarily in favor of Greek independence for three reasons: public opinion, religion and geo-strategic motives to weaken the Ottoman Empire. In 1830, the independence of Greece is acquired, but Chios remains Ottoman.
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In March 1821, a national uprising against Ottoman rule began in Greece. Many Ottoman civilians are massacred in the Peloponnese
by the insurgents, who proclaimed independence in 1822. The massacre of Chios constitutes a culmination of the repression carried out by the Ottomans, and reinforces European support. -
The king dies and it is Charles X who succeeds him, he is more authoritarian and ultraroyalist. The implementation of the reactionary policy breaks the balance. He follows a monarchist current: he has a desire to restore the Ancien Régime.
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Revolutionary movements break out in France. The return to the old order ignores liberal and national aspirations. The insurgents seek to obtain liberal reforms, national emancipation or social rights. The reactionary policy adopted by Charles X, plus his desire to restore the Old Regime are not well received and cause les Trois Glorieuses, a revolution where the people express their dissatisfaction and to try to and try to overthrow him.
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Colonial policy is debated under the Third Republic. Colonization allows France to find and exploit wealth and raw materials necessary for industry. Colonies provide an economic rake to place capital. The French convinced of the inequality of races justifies their civilizing mission. France seeks to increase its rank as a great power, affected by the defeat against Germany in 1870.
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Charles X is overthrown and Louis-Philippe d'Orléans becomes "king of the French”, The July Monarchy operates according to the “Revised Charter” which gives more power to Parliament.
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The roots of the Opium War lay in a trade dispute between the British and the Chinese Qing Dynasty. By the start of the 19th century, the trade in Chinese goods such as tea, silks and porcelain was extremely lucrative for British merchants. The problem was that the Chinese would not buy British products in return. They would only sell their goods in exchange for silver, and as a result large amounts of silver were leaving Britain.
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In order to stop this, the East India Company and other British merchants began to smuggle Indian opium into China illegally, for which they demanded payment in silver. This was then used to buy tea and other goods. The 1st war broke out because China wanted to enforce the opium ban and the UK refused not to sell its opium to China. They eventually won and signed the unequal treaties which opened China to foreign trade and ruined its economy
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Le printemps des peuples is a revolutionary movement in the face of the absence of political reforms and an economic crisis. Paris apparaît comme un lieu de transit pour les révolutionnaires européens qui fuient la répression avant de repartir au combat. Les barricades se diffusent de Paris à Berlin, Milan ou Rome.
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The Republic is proclaimed in Rome and Venice. The King of Piedmont leads the uprising against Austria and takes Lombardy. After an uprising in Vienna, the Hungarians, led by Lajos Kossuth, also revolt against Austria, as well as the Czechs.
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A revolution broke out in February 1848 and chases Louis-Philippe from power. The Second Republic is proclaimed and universal male suffrage is established. The right to work is proclaimed, as well as
the right of association, and slavery is abolished. -
Thus, on December 2, 1852, Napoleon Ill was able to proclaim the Second Empire, a regime that wants to be both strong and based on the consent of the people, It is thought of as a restoration of the First Empire of its oncle, Napoleon I.
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Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte foments a coup, December 2, 1851
to deal with the Assembly's refusal to grant him the right to run for a second term and to restore universal suffrage. In a year, he reorganized the powers and promulgated a new constitution,
of which it is the keystone. It is approved by the French people during a plebiscite. -
The constitution grants the emperor all powers: initiative of laws, appointment of most parliamentarians. It is accompanied by measures restricting freedoms and supervising the elections through official candidacies. Thus, opposition to the regime was very limited in the 1850s. Napoleon III intended to establish a direct relationship with the French through tours in the provinces and the use of the plebiscite
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Throughout the eighteenth century, much of India was progressively conquered by the East India Company, a violent and rapacious enterprise. This company allowed Great Britain to install a commercial monopoly. Later on, the British Government took over the administration to establish the British Raj. This system of governance was instituted in 1858 when the rule of the East India Company was transferred to the Crown in the person of Queen Victoria.
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From 1859, the empire began to liberalize: while the opposition,
especially republican, is reinforced, around Adolphe Thiers who pleads for the establishment of the five "necessary freedoms" (1864), Napoleon Ill amnesty certain of its opponents (1860), authorizes coalitions or liberalize the press (1868). From 1869, a semi-parliamentary regime was born: on the strength of its reinforcement in the Legislative Body from election to election,
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and part of the opposition pushed the Emperor to call Émile Ollivier to the head of government (1870). It establishes a parliamentary system, where the ministers are responsible to the Chambers and where the Legislative Body may dispose of initiative of laws. This constitutional reform is accepted by the plebiscite of May 8, 1870. Four months later, the regime collapsed: the defeat of Sedan against Prussia and the surrender of the emperor allows the Republicans to overthrow the regime.
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France and the United Kingdom decide to build communication lines destined to connect their respective African colonies in an uninterrupted manner.
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The English goal was a north-south union and the French was west-east. In the town of Kodok, in what is now South Sudan, two military expeditions met, one French and the other British, which when they met entered into a conflict over the rights of their respective nations over the Nile basin. This lawsuit, although it did not reach an armed confrontation, it mobilized public opinion in France and Great Britain in defense of the imperialist interests of both countries.
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Since the end of the 19th century, defensive alliances have been formed in Europe with the Triple-Alliance on one side and the Triple-Entente on the other.
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When François Ferdinand went to Sarajevo, in Bosnia-Herzegovina, a territory under Austrian domination, he was assassinated along with his wife by Serbian nationalists.
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