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Jamestown was the first successful English settlement in what would eventually become the United States. Thriving for nearly one hundred years, the settlement incubated free enterprise, race relations, democratic government, and Protestant religion—all which dominate America today. Additionally, Jamestown allowed for the discovery of the tobacco plant, which quickly became the most valuable crop and ultimately allowed the settlement to sustain itself economically. -
The House of Burgesses was the first legislative and democratic government in America. It granted supplies and originated laws, and the governor as well as the council enjoyed the right of revision and veto. The council also sat as a supreme court to review the county courts. The House of Burgesses paved the way for democratic society that bloomed during the Revolution. -
Considered on of America’s earliest feminists, Anne Hutchinson was a spiritual leader in colonial Massachusetts who challenged male authority by preaching to both men and women and also questioning Puritan teachings about salvation. Declared “not fit for [her] society” Anne was banished from Massachusetts. The vigorous defense that she mounted in both her court and church trials was an important forerunner to the development of the constitutional notion of separation of church and state. -
Long before the First Amendment was adopted, the assembly of the Province of Maryland passed the Maryland Toleration Act of 1649. The act was meant to ensure freedom of religion for Christian settlers of diverse persuasions in the colony. Additionally, the act also helped inspire later legal protections for freedom of religion in the United States and growth of religious freedom in the colonies, offering refuge to religious minorities. -
The Halfway Covenant was a religious-political solution adopted by the Puritans, allowing the children of baptized but unconverted church members to be baptized and thus become right-bearing church members. The Halfway Covenant was a move designed to liberalize membership rules and bolster the church’s position in the community. -
Bacon’s Rebellion was an armed rebellion held by White and Black indentured servants and slaves and was led by Nathaniel Bacon. The rebellion was triggered when Bacon's proposal to remove local Native American was denied. Bacon’s Rebellion hastened the hardening of racial lines. Following the rebellion, lawmakers began to make legal distinctions between white and black inhabitants, hoping to make it less likely that they would unite again in rebellion. -
The Virginia Slave Codes was a series of laws enacted that regulated the interactions between slaves and citizens of the colony of Virginia. The code established southern ideals of belittling African Americans and served as a way to socially segregate white colonists from Black enslaved persons, making them disparate groups and thus hindering their ability to unite. -
The Middle Passage was the stage of the Atlantic slave trade where millions of enslaved Africans were forcibly transported to the Americas as part of the triangular slave trade. The Middle Passage supplied the colonies with its major workforce and brought significant economic profit to international slave traders. Though Africans endured inhumane conditions their impact in the colonies is felt today. Widespread southern food, music and religious rituals today are traced to African roots -
“Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” is a sermon written by Anglican minister and one of the chief fathers of the Great Awakening: Jonathan Edwards. This sermon is an appeal to sinners to recognize that they will be judged by God and that individuals need to ask for his forgiveness. The sermon epitomizes the spirit of the Great Awakening as it argues that people should have a personal, emotional relationship with God. -
Presented at the Albany Congress, the Albany Plan was created to establish a unified government for the thirteen colonies. The plan involved establishing a grand council, made up representatives from all colonies, making laws for the colonies, and to win the French and Indian War. Although never carried out, the plan was the first important proposal to conceive the colonies as a collective whole united under one government. -
Fought during the Seven Years War, British troops led by Major General James Wolf came up against the garrison of French general, Marquis de Montcalm. Lasting less than one hour, the battle was a pivotal victory for the British, giving them supremacy in North America. The removal of France as a North American power increased the confidence of the colonies, which agitated for greater freedom from Britain. The battle not only led to British control of Canada but also to the American Revolution. -
The Treaty of Paris ended the Seven Years War between Britain and France. In its terms, France gave up all territories in mainland North America, ending any foreign military threat to the British colonies. While it provided Britain great territorial gains, the war had been expensive. Britain's attempts to impose taxes on colonists to help cover these costs and limiting western expansion resulted in increasing colonial resentment and ultimately developed into a full-scale war for independence. -
The Sugar Act was a revenue-raising act aimed at ending the smuggling of sugar from the French and West Indies and increasing revenues to fund newfound British responsibilities after the Seven Years war. However, the act disrupted the economy of the colonies, increasing the cost of imported goods and reduced exports to non-British markets. The act increased the colonists’ concerns about the intent of the British parliament and helped the growing movement that became the American Revolution. -
The Boston Massacre was a deadly riot in which British soldiers shot and killed five colonists whom they thought to be a “patriot” mob. What started as a minor fight became a turning point in the prelude to revolution. The Boston Massacre helped spark the colonists’ desire for independence and united the colonies against Britain. The infamous political cartoon by Paul Revere of the event was utilized as propaganda and further ignited fury amongst the colonists. -
The Intolerable Acts were punitive laws passed after the Boston Tea party, aiming to punish colonists for their defiance. Though the laws were directed at Massachusetts, colonists across the continent feared that the British could implement similar policies aimed at their respective governments. Consequently, the act created a sense of unity among the colonies. Colonists responded to the Intolerable Acts by convening the First Continental Congress to negotiate a unified approach to the British. -
Common Sense is a pamphlet that challenged the authority of the British, making critical claims for declaring independence. The pamphlet changed colonists’ views of Britain, uniting average citizens and political leaders toward the Revolution. With his persuasive prose, Paine created moral and political arguments to encourage common people to fight for freedom. Additionally, Paine’s espousal of religious freedom appealed to many who were forced to pay tithes to churches they didn’t belong to. -
The Battle of Saratoga marked a turning point in the Revolutionary War. American victory helped persuade the French to recognize American potential, independence and to openly provide military assistance. France’s naval support eventually helped the Continental Army win the final Battle of Yorktown, ending the Revolutionary War. Additionally, the battle increased American spirits and ended the British threat in New England by taking control of the Hudson River. -
Hopelessly trapped in Yorktown, British General Charles Cornwallis forcefully surrendered his army to General George Washington, giving up any chance of winning the Revolutionary War. The capture of the troops severely hampered the British war effort, turning the British public against the war. Lacking financial resources to raise a new army, the British government appealed to the Americans for peace. The war would formally come to an end two years later with the signing of the Treaty of Paris. -
The 3/5ths compromise was an agreement between delegates during the Constitutional Convention, stating that three-fifths of the slave population would be counted for determining taxation and representation in the House. The compromise impacted U.S. politics for decades to come, allowing pro-slavery states to have a disproportionate influence on the presidency, the Supreme Court, and other positions of power. -
On June 21, 1788, the Constitution became the official framework of the U.S. government. The Constitution established America’s national government of fundamental laws and guaranteed certain basic rights for its citizens. It introduced new governmental doctrine such as checks and balances, separation of power, and an amendment process. Overall, the document changed political and economic aspects in the U.S., forming a strong central government, uniting what was formerly a loose confederation. -
Angered by a whiskey tax that negatively affected small businesses, Pennsylvanian farmers violently took to the streets. The rebellion was the first test of federal authority in the U.S.. In response, President Washington issued The rebellion reinforced the idea that the novel government had the right to levy a particular tax that would impact citizens in all states. -
Signed into law by President Adams, the Alien and Sedition Acts were a series of four laws regulating aliens and restricting criticism of public officials. The most controversial of the statutes was the Sedition Act, which was widely seen as an attempt to curb opposition directed towards the Adams administration. Outrage against the laws helped Thomas Jefferson secure the Election of 1800 as well as a Republican majority in Congress. -
The Louisiana Purchase was the acquisition of the Louisiana territory from France. The purchase essentially doubled the size of the U.S., greatly strengthening the country—both materially and strategically. It provided great motivation for westward expansion and served as an example of expansion of presidential power through loose construction. However, this great bargain came at a great price. It subjected Native Americans to unfair treaties, genocidal policies and expanded slavery in the U.S. -
The Embargo Act was a trade embargo meant to prohibit American ships from trading in foreign ports and demonstrate British and French dependence on American goods. However, the act devastated American shipping exports, unemployment increased, and smuggling was widely endorsed by the public. Despite this, the embargo increased reliance on domestic manufactured goods. The act was one of the major factors leading up to the war of 1812 as it increased hostility between America and Britain. -
The Battle of New Orleans was the final military engagement in the War of 1812. American victory forced the British to recognize United States claims to Louisiana and West Florida and to ratify the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the war. The Battle of New Orleans also marked Louisiana’s political incorporation into the Union. Additionally, the battle boosted American self-confidence and increased fame for Andrew Jackson through his leadership. -
Passed in 1820, the Missouri Compromise admitted Missouri to the Union as a slave state and Maine as a free state. It maintained a delicate balance between free and slave state on the dangerously divisive issue of the era. The compromise marked the beginning if he prolonged sectional conflict over the extension of slavery that led to the Civil War. -
The Monroe Doctrine was a foreign policy of the U.S., stating that European powers do not belong in the Americas or the western hemisphere in general. The policy deeply affected the U.S.’s foregn policy relationship with Latin American nations. It subsequently contributed to the emergence of the U.S. as a world power and the ideas spelt out in the address became a longstanding principle of U.S. foreign policy, and it remains so even today. -
In the presidential election of 1824, John Quincy Adams defeated Andrew Jackson, though Jackson had won the popular and electoral votes. With a multitude of new voters, the older system of having Congress assemble caucasus to determine who would run was no longer tenable. For the first time, it became clear that voters had regional interests. Adams’s victory was a gut punch for Jackson, branding the election a “corrupt bargain”, which propelled Jackson and his followers to victory in 1828. -
The Liberator was the most widely circulated anti-slavery newspaper during the antebellum period and throughout the Civil War. Over its 3 decades of publication, The Liberator denounced all people and acts that would prolong slavery, including the US Constitution. Its popularity made it highly influential, spreading the urgent message of abolitionism throughout the country. However, the paper was met with furious reactions from southern politicians, who passed legislation banning its circulation -
The nullification crisis was a conflict between South Carolina and the US government driven by the opposition of the Tariff of 1828. The Nullification Crisis revealed the deep divisions between the North and the South, showing they could cause enormous problems. Additionally, it brought forth the notion that secession was constitutional. However, the federal government proved its power by issuing a proclamation that asserted supremacy of the federal government. -
As part of Andrew Jackson’s Indian removal policy, the Cherokee nation was forced to give up its lands east of the Mississippi and migrate to present day Oklahoma. Migrants faced hunger, disease, and exhaustion on the journey. This chapter in American history signifies the callousness of American policy makers towards Native Americans. Native land was held hostage by the government, and Natives had to agree to removal to preserve their identity. -
Launching the Women's Suffrage movement, the Seneca Falls Convention passed several resolutions designed to gain certain rights and privileges that women of the era had been denied. The Convention set the Women's Rights Movement in motion and influenced both men and women to start working toward equal rights. More than 70 years later, the nation ratified the 19th Amendment, which granted women the right to vote.
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The Compromise of 1850 was a set of five bills that defused a political confrontation between slave and free states after the Mexican-American War. The Compromise admitted California as a free state, leaving Utah and New Mexico to decide for themselves. It abolished slave trade in Washington D.C. and enforced a fugitive slave law, which left many Southerners enraged. -
Uncle Tom’s Cabin was an anti-slavery novel telling the story of an enslaved person, Uncle Tom, depicted as saintly and dignified, noble, and unwavering. The novel became the best selling novel of the 19th century as well as a turning point in the Abolitionist Movement. It brought clarity to the harsh reality of slavery, pushed back against beliefs that belittled the physical and emotional capabilities of Black people, and inspired many to join the anti-slavery movement. -
The Dred Scott decision was a landmark legal case, in which the Supreme Court ruled that saves who were descendants of African slaves were not citizens of the U.S. The decision outraged abolitionists, who saw the Supreme Court’s ruling as a way to settle debate about slavery in the states. The divide between North and South over slavery deepened and grew in the secession of Southern states -
The Raid on Harper’s Ferry was an effort by abolitionist John Brown to start an armed revolt and destroy the institution of slavery. Although the raid failed, it inflamed sectional tensions, raising the stakes for the election of 1860. The raid helped make any further compromise between North and South states nearly impossible. Thus, the raid became an important driving force of the Civil War. -
The First Battle of Bull Run marked the first major land battle of the Civil War. The battle resulted in thousands of lives lost and is considered highly crucial as two inexperienced armies fought on the battlefield for the first time. The Confederate victory gave the South a surge of confidence and shocked many in the North, who began to realize the war would not be won as easily as they had hoped. -
The Homestead Act of 1862 provided 160 acres of land to anyone who agreed to farm the land. The act distributed millions of acres of western land to individual settlers. It helped create the most productive agricultural economy the world has ever seen. The lure of free land prompted millions to immigrate from Europe and Americans to leave their homelands. This huge migration accelerated settlement of Western territory. -
The Emancipation Proclamation declared “That all persons held as slaves” within Confederate land “are and henceforward shall be free”. The proclamation made the eradication of slavery a main goal for the Union, strengthening it militarily and politically. For the South, this resulted in an economic loss of nearly $2B for planters. And crippled the South’s ability to wage war. Additionally, the proclamation forestalled any potential recognition of the Confederacy by England or France -
The 54th Massachusetts Infantry was an all-Black Union regiment that became famous after the ill-fated yet heroic assault on Ft. Wagner. Thanks to their bravery, the US army increased the number of Black enlistments. By 1865, almost 200,000 African Americans served during theCivil War. Additionally, the 54th’s successful campaign signaled toward a move for racial justice within the military -
The 13th Amendment abolished slavery as an institution in all US states and territories. It marked a turning point in the long fight for racial justice. The amendment not only applied to the action of the government, but also to actions of private citizens. This gave Congress the power to enact laws against modern forms of enslavement. Despite this, many racially discriminatory methods in the South such as black codes and Jim Crow laws continued to force many Black people into involuntary labor. -
Under a platform of philosophized white racial superiority, the Ku Klux Klan employed violence as a way of pushing back Black liberation during Reconstruction. Many Klan actions were designed to intimidate Black voters, white supporters of the Republican party, and to control Black American’s social behavior. lack churches and schools were burned, teachers were attacked, and freed-people who refused to show proper deference were beaten and killed. -
Connecting the two American coasts, the transcontinental railroad has a major effect on America economically. It brought products of eastern companies to the novel West. The railroad ensured a production boom and encouraged further settlement in the West. It made traveling cheaper, easier, and time-effective. Additionally, the railroad encouraged the development of towns along it as it made the west less isolated. -
Native American forces defeated US Army troops, marking the most decisive native victory and the worst US defeat in the Indian Wars. The death of Custer and his troops enraged many White Americans and confirmed their perception of Natives as wild and bloodthirsty. As a result Custer- in the eyes of White America- became known as a legend of the West. Following the battle, there was increased military presence on the Great Plains and violent destruction of Native resistance. -
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a novel that explored themes of race and identity. The novel addresses the greatest contradiction in American history: the existence of slavery and racial prejudice in a nation whose foundation lies in liberty and equality. The novel gained much popularity and was banned in the South for its use of racial vernacular in the region. However, it is a vital tool for gaining understanding of race relations and societal standards in the south following the Civil War. -
The Dawes Act allowed the federal government to break up tribal lands by dividing them into individual plots. The objective of the act was to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream society by destroying their cultural and social traditions and to create divisions among Natives, eliminating social cohesion of tribes. As a result, over 90 million acres of tribal land were stripped from indigenous tribes and sold to non-Natives -
A private letter written by Spanish minister, Enrique Dupuy De Lome, was published. The letter criticized president McKinley and stated the Spanish had no intention of honoring a deal with the US concerning humanitarian relief for Cuban people. The letter left Spain further demonized and the US calling for action. Both of these forces pushed the United States closer to war. -
Wounded Knee was the final clash between federal troops and the Sioux tribe. The conflict resulted in the deaths of rouyghly 150-300 Natives. The massacre ended the Ghost Dance Movement, was the last major confrontation in the Indian Wars, and broke any organized resistance to reservation life and assimilation to white American culture. Following the Indian Wars, the Native American population had been reduced to approximately 240,000. -
Plessy V. Ferguson was a landmark Supreme Court case that ruled segregation was legal as long as equal facilities were provided for both races. The case was significant as it essentially established the constitutionality of racial segregation. It prevented any constitutional challenges to segregation for nearly 50 years. The case confined African Americans to second-class citizens and barred rich access to education, employment, and other aspects of life. -
The signing of the Treaty of Paris not only established the independence of Cuba but ceded Puerto Rico and Guam and allowed the US to purchase the Philippines. This victory and new acquisition of land allowed the US to enter the 20th century as an imperial power. This marked a shift in the US’s long-term commitment to isolationism and transition into an imperial power. With this followed a desire for new markets and a belief in racial/cultural superiority. -
William McKinley became the third U.S. president to be assassinated after he was fatally shot at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, NY. McKinley’s death shocked the nation, with sympathies even reaching overseas. Additionally, his death prompted the Secret Service’s duty of protecting the president full time. Today, the Secret Service plays a critical role in protecting the U.S. and its elections, as well as visiting heads of state and world leaders. -
Based in Chicago, muckraker Upton Sinclair investigated conditions in the meat-packing industry. He wrote The Jungle to expose the appalling conditions in the industry. Instead of helping out the working class, the book made the public aware that the plants were filthy and dangerous, posing a threat to the public. Therefore, this made it possible for the federal government to intervene and regulate the food industry with the passing of the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act. -
Henry Ford realized he needed a more efficient way to produce the Model T in order to lower its price. Ford gradually adapted the production line until his plant incorporated the first moving assembly line. Before Ford stopped making the model T in 1927, 15 million had been sold and Ford had become the leading auto manufacturer in the country. Ford also revolutionized the auto industry by increasing the pay and cutting hours of his employees, ensuring he could get enough and the best workers. -
The 16th amendment established Congress’s right to impose a federal income tax. The amendment played a central role in building up the powerful American federal government of the 2oth century by making it possible to enact a modern, nationwide income tax. Income tax would allow for the federal government to keep an army, build roads and bridges, enforce laws and carry out other important duties. Later on, the income tax would by far become the federal government’s largest source of revenue. -
The Harlem Renaissance was the cultural revival of Black creative arts in the '20s with Harlem as its capital. It is considered the most influential period in Black literary history. The movement helped Black writers and artists gain more control over the representation of Black culture and experience, providing them a place in Western high culture. Additionally, it inspired anti-colonial and anti-assimilationist movements, increasing involvement of Black actors/playwrights in American theater. -
The Zimmermann Telegram, a message proposing a Mexican German alliance in case of war between the US and Germany, was intercepted by the British and passed on to the US. The message was published on the front pages of newspapers across America, contributing to US entry to WWI. The telegram was useful for convincing the American public that it should be sending its men over to Europe to fight. It proved the perfect justification for a change of policy and to convince some of the skeptics. -
The Fourteen Points were a proposal made by President Woodrow Wilson, outlining his vision for ending WWI in a way that would prevent war from happening again. Wilson subsequently used the Fourteen Points as the basis for negotiating the Treaty of Versailles that ended the war. Although the Treaty did not fully realize Wilson's unselfish vision, the Fourteen Points still stand as the most powerful expression of the idealist strain in United States diplomacy -
Marking one stage in women’s long fight for political equality, the 19th Amendment granted women the right to vote. The 19th amendment extended the vote to between 26 million and 30 million women, making it the single largest expansion of voting rights in US history. It helped millions of women move closer to equality in all aspects of life. The 19th Amendment was a direct assault on traditional conceptions of femininity and masculinity, and on the presumption that politics is a man’s game -
Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti were found guilty of the murders of a paymaster and payroll guard in Massachussets. Little evidence proved them guilty, and they were convicted based more on their political activities as anarchists rather than evidence. Reopened in 1961, evidence proved Sacco and Vanzetti’s involvement, though it is clear that they were unfairly tried. -
The National Origins Act limited the number of immigrants allowed entry into the US through a national origins quota. It provided immigratiion visas to 2% of the total number of people of each nationality in the US per the 1890 census. The law blatantly discriminated against immigrants from Southern & Eastern Europe and excluded Asians. The law clearly reflected anti-immigrant feelings of the 20s. Many Americans feared that as immigration increased, jobs and housing would become harder to obtain -
Over the course of five days, the stock market crashed in October 1929 and marked the greatest crash in history. Trading volume soared and the average price of a share fell 12%. The crash destroyed the fortunes of brokers and speculators while also setting off a long period of economic panic. This event marked the beginning of the Great Depression, which destroyed the economy and left millions of Americans jobless -
With the Great Depression casting a shadow over the 1932 election, Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected president over Hoover. The Democratic Party emerged as the nation's majority party with the ushering in of the New Deal. The transition from the Hoover administration to the FDR administration also witnessed the appearance of a peacetime activist central government in response to the crisis brought on by the Great Depression -
The New Deal was a series of programs and projects instituted during the Great Depression by FDR, aiming to restore prosperity to all Americans. The three R’s of the New Deal were ‘relief, recovery, and reform’. The New Deal helped restore a sense of security as it put people back to work. It created the framework for a regulatory state that could protect the interest of all Americans, no matter socioeconomic status, and thereby help the business system work in more productive ways -
In this speech, FDR focused on maintaining peace in the face of increasing hostilities in Europe. Though the US was still battling the Great Depression, the president declared the US as not strictly isolationist, but governed by a “good neighbor” policy. As a result, the US removed Marine troops from NIcaragua in 1933 and from Haiti in 1934. In 1934, the policy led to the ratification of the US Treaty of Relations with Cuba -
FDR announces to expand the Supreme Court to as many as 15 judges. Critics immediately argued that the president was trying to pack and neutralize SCOTUS justices hostile to the New Deal. The court-packing plan squandered the political advantage Roosevelt had gained in the 1936 elections, and gave fresh ammunition to those who accused him of dictatorship, tyranny and fascism. It is a prime example of FDR’s attempts at expanding the power of the executive and ushering in the modern presidency -
Japanese planes attacked the US naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Naval forces were severely diminished by the unexpected attack and 2,300+ were killed. The attack brought the US into WWII and helped the Allies achieve victory. US involvement helped to usher in the democratic, peaceful post-war world. Without US involvement, had the USSR proved victorious against Germany without as many concurrent attacks on Germany by the Allies, post-war Europe would certainly have been more communist. -
Issued by FDR, this order authorized the evacuation of all persons deemed a threat to national security from the west coast to relocation centers further inland, thus resulting in the internment of Japanese Americans. As an immediate result, families were forced to leave their homes and move to camps, sometimes thousands of miles from home. Many were not allowed to return to their homes for years. Additionally, the order would lead to one of the most infamous SCOTUS cases, Korematsu v US -
Allied Forces landed along 50 miles of the coast of Normandy. The landing was the largest amphibious invasion ever executed and included more than 160,000 troops. D-Day marked the turn of the tide for the control maintained by Nazi Germany; less than a year after the invasion, the Allies formally accepted Nazi Germany's surrender. D-Day was a day that cost many lives on all sides of the conflict, changing not only the future of countries, but of families as well -
The GI Bill provided government issued educational and financial benefits to veterans. It offered veterans unemployment compensation, financial aid for college, vocational training and low-interest home loans. Not only did it save the American economy from a potential unemployment epidemic, it was also the gift that kept on giving: as more Americans took advantage of higher education, they earned higher wages and could therefore pump more money into the economy by buying homes and consumer goods -
Marking the first use of nuclear weapons, the US dropped an atomic bomb on the Japanese city of hiroshima. The bomb destroyed much of the city, killing 30% of its population and injuring thousands more. Radiation-related diseases continued to affect residents for years to come. Among the long-term effects suffered by survivors, the most deadly was leukemia. Children represent the population that was affected most severely -
On a thousand acres on Long Island, Levitt built 17,00 homes to accommodate roughly 82,000 people. He soon began building houses using assembly line techniques to produce more Levittowns, a model for suburban planning that proliferated throughout the 50s. Levittown was the first truly mass-produced suburb and is widely regarded as the archetype for postwar suburbs throughout the country. It also brought about a new post-war culture, emphasizing conformity and uniformity. -
Rosie the Riveter was a propaganda character created by J. Howard Miller and designed to increase production of female workers in factories. It became a rallying symbol for women to "do their part" in the war. The piece of propaganda provoked massive changes in work regulations from shifts, to clothing, to bathroom space. Women working outside of domestic life were accepted, encouraged, and looked upon as patriotic during a short period in time -
The Truman Doctrine was a policy plan to keep communism from spreading to politically unstable countries.The Truman Doctrine helped to prevent the spread of communism into weaker European countries and therefore upheld the policy of containment. The Doctrine was informally extended to become the basis of American Cold War policy throughout Europe and around the world. It shifted American foreign policy toward the Soviet Union from détente to a containment of Soviet expansion. -
Fearing that poverty and other conditions created by WWII might make Europe susceptible to Communism, the American government funneled about $13B into Europe to rehabilitate and stabilize countries through the Marshall Plan. The Plan contributed to reviving the Western European economies by controlling inflation, reviving trade and restoring production. It also institutionalized the concept of U.S. foreign aid programs, which have become an integral part of U.S. foreign policy -
The crisis started when Soviet forces blockaded rail, road & water access to Allied controlled areas of Berlin. The US and Uk responded by airlifting food and fuel to Berlin from air bases in Western Germany. During the airlift, the two countries delivered more than 2.3M tons of food, fuel and supplies. The airlift demonstrated America’s innovative spirit, efficiency, perseverance and leadership. It also highlighted the value of cooperation to accomplish tasks that one country can’t do alone -
The NSC 68 was a 58 page top secret policy recommending that the US embark on rapid military expansion of conventional forces and the nuclear arsenal, including the development of the hydrogen bomb. NSC 68 and its subsequent amplifications advocated a large expansion in the military budget of the US, the development of a hydrogen bomb, and increased military aid to allies of the United States, but specifically urging that the hydrogen bomb be developed to offset the Soviet nuclear capacity -
Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower defeated his Democratic opponent with 442 electoral votes and 55.2% of the popular vote. In his first term, Eisenhower signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and sent Army troops to enforce federal court orders which integrated schools in Little Rock, Arkansas. His largest program was the Interstate Highway System. He promoted the establishment of strong science education via the National Defense Education Act -
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were executed for conspiring to pass atomic secrets to Russia. Both refused to admit any wrongdoing and proclaimed their innocence right up to the time of their deaths, by the electric chair. The Rosenbergs’ case captures the real-world dangers that were rife in these days of Cold War paranoia, the threat of a Red Scare powerful enough to bring about the controversial executions of the couple that left their young children orphaned. -
In the case of Brown v Board of Education, the Supreme Court ruled that segregation of public school children based on race was unconstitutional. The ruling struck down the Plessy v. Ferguson “separate but equal” decision. Striking down segregation in the nation's public schools provided a major catalyst for the civil rights movement, making possible advances in desegregating housing, public accommodations, and institutions of higher education. -
The Warsaw Pact was a collective defense treaty established by the Soviet Union, providing a mutual defense organization that put the Soviets in command of the armed forces of the member states. The Warsaw Pact embodied what was referred to as the Eastern bloc, while NATO and its member countries represented the Western bloc. NATO and the Warsaw Pact were ideologically opposed and, over time, built up their own defenses starting an arms race that lasted throughout the Cold War -
The Federal Highway Act authorized the building of highways throughout the nation, which would be the biggest public works project in US history. The Act created a large network of interstate highways, which in turn helped create jobs, tourism opportunities, and economic growth. Interstate highways made travel and commerce more efficient. They also provided key routes for evacuating urban centers, a critical national defense issue in the Cold War era -
President Eisenhower sent federal troops to Little Rock, Arkansas, to protect nine black students enrolling in the previously segregated Central High. The event led to a federal takeover of many Southern public schools. It strengthened control of education by state governments and demonstrated that the federal government would use force to ensure compliance with the Supreme Court decision. -
Sputnik I became the first satellite launched into space in October 1957. The launch of the satellite marked the beginning of the space race as a high stakes competition with national security implications between the US and Soviet Union. he Soviets’ success in launching the satellites not only cma as a shock to experts and citizens in the US, but it also prompted the US to increase federal spending on education and technology advances. -
Four Black college students from North Carolina stage the first of the Civil Rights Movements sit-ins. The students sat down at a lunch counter and attempted to order but were refused service. The sit-in movement extended, with participants facing harassment, violence, and arrest in their attempts to integrate public lunch counters. The sit-ins demonstrated that mass nonviolent direct action could be successful and brought national media attention to the new era of the civil rights movement -
Planned by the CIA and approved by President Kennedy, US backed Cuban anti-Castro exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs but were overcome by Castro’s troops. More than 1000 men were captured in an embarrassing defeat. The invasion's defeat solidified Castro's role as a national hero and widened the political division between the two formerly-allied countries. It also pushed Cuba closer to the Soviet Union, setting the stage for the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. -
A group of Black and White activists traveled to New Orleans in the first Freedom Rides. Freedom Riders intended to test the enforcement of the ban on segregation in bus travel. Many faced violent attacks and arrests. The rides continued over the next several months, and under pressure from the Kennedy administration, the Interstate Commerce Commission issued regulations prohibiting segregation in interstate transit terminals. -
The Cuban Missile Crisis was a major confrontation that brought the US and the USSR close to nuclear war over the presence of Soviet missiles in Cuba. The crisis strengthened Kennedy’s image domestically and internationally. It also helped mitigate negative world opinion regarding the failed Bay of Pigs invasion. Additionally, having reached the brink of nuclear conflict, both the US and USSR began to reconsider the nuclear arms race and took the first steps in agreeing to a Test Ban Treaty -
Silent Spring was a book written by Rachel Carson to voice the concerns of environmentalists. Specifically, the book explained how agricultural chemicals and pesticides damaged streams, bird and animal populations, and caused severe medical problems for humans. The book spurred a reversal in national pesticide policy, led to a nationwide ban on DDT for agricultural uses, and inspired an environmental movement that led to the creation of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency -
The March on Washington was a massive protest march that aimed to draw attention to continuing challenges and inequalities faced by the Black community. The march brought together demonstrators from around the nation to share their own experiences with discrimination and racism It not only functioned as a plea for equality and justice; it also helped pave the way for both the ratification of the Twenty-fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution -
The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution authorized President Johnson to take any necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the US and to prevent any further aggression by Vietnam. The resolution effectively launched America’s full-scale involvement in the Vietnam War and plans to increase US military involvement in Vietnam were begun in earnest. As a result, the US launched Operation Rolling Thunder, a large-scale bombing campaign of Vietnamese targets that would last for more than 2 years -
Operation Rolling Thunder was a bombing campaign in which US Air Force and Navy aircraft engaged in a bombing designed to put military pressure on Vietnam’s communist leaders and reduce their capacity to wage war against South Vietnam. The operation represented a major expansion of US involvement in the Vietnam War. However, it failed to persuade the North Vietnamese and failed to destroy their war ambitions with South Vietnam. -
As over 2000 Filipino-American farm workers refused to go to work, they set into motion a chain of events that would later be known as the Delano Grape Strike. The strike’s objective was to protest years of poor pay and working conditions. The strike saw unprecedented cooperation between Filipinos and Hispanics, with Cesar Chavez joining the cause. The efforts were a complete success and led to the creation of the nation's first farm workers union: The United Farm Workers of America -
The Summer of Love was a social phenomenon that saw many young people sporting hippie fashions, dress, and behavior in San Francisco’s Haight-Ashbury district. This high volume of people pushed the ideas of the Summer of Love into mainstream American society. The Summer of Love produced some of the most important works of popular music in history. Some of it represented a direct protest of the war, some simply reflected the yearning for peace and love -
The My Lai massacre was one of the most horrific incidents of violence committed against unarmed civilians during the Vietnam War. American infantrymen murdered more than 500 men, women, and children. The atrocities at My Lai came to light in the American media in early 1969, stunning the public. The brutality of the My Lai killings and the official cover-up fueled anti-war sentiment and further divided the United States over the Vietnam War -
Following a police raid on the Stonewall Inn, riots broke out with members of the gay community clashing with police forces. The protest over mistreatment and oppression sparked a wider movement for gay rights. Though the riot didn’t start the Gay Rights Movement, it was a strong force for LGBTQ political activism and transformed the movement for gay liberation. The riot lead to numerous gay rights organizations: Gay Liberation Front, Human Rights Campaign, GLAAD, and PFLAG -
President Nixon signed the Clean Air Act, which sought to minimize pollution increases from growing numbers of motor vehicles and from new or expanded stationary sources. Its enactment resulted in a major shift in the federal government’s role in air pollution control. In its first 20 years, more than 200,000 premature deaths and 18 million cases of respiratory illness in children were prevented. Today, the act continues to cut pollution and protect the health of American families and workers. -
The Nixon Administration sent special agents to Watergate Hotel, the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee. They hoped to copy documents and wiretap telephones but were ultimately caught. As a result, President Nixon was forced to resign the presidency and face criminal charges against 69 people, with convictions against 48 of them. Following the scandal, a series of government reforms came along, tightening regulations of campaign activities, political contributions, and lobbying. -
In Roe v Wade the Supreme Court ruled that abortion fell under the Constitutional right to privacy. The court mandated federal protection for pregnancy termination during the first trimester. The decision struck down many U.S. federal and state abortion laws. Roe fueled an ongoing abortion debate in the United States about whether or to what extent abortion should be legal, who should decide the legality of abortion, and what the role of moral & religious views in the political sphere should be -
Rather than face impeachment for his role in the Watergate scandal, Richard Nixon resigned as the president of the US. Nixon’s resignation and the scandal that led up to it had disturbing impacts on public trust. Before Watergate, America’s trust in government was above 60%. After Watergate, it dropped to 36%. The number has never quite recovered to the height it was pre-Nixon. Many Americans lost faith in their government and became cynical about politics -
Harvey Milk becomes the first openly gay elected official in the history of America, taking his place on the San Francisco Board of Supervisors. Milk served almost eleven months in office, during which he sponsored a bill banning discrimination in public accommodations, housing, and employment on the basis of sexual orientation. Despite his short career in politics, Milk became an icon in San Francisco and a martyr in the gay community -
The Three Mile Island nuclear accident was the worst accident in the history of the US, taking place at the Unit-2 reactor at Three Mile Island The accident resulted in deadly radiation drifts across the neighboring countryside, fatally sickening a potentially great number of people. The Three Mile Island incident helped to galvanize the anti-nuclear movement in the United States, with High profile protests in response to the events at Three Mile Island took place around the country.
