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- Perspective
- Chiaroscuro
- Pyramid configuration
- Classical forms and Christian subjects
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Enabled the works of humanists such as Erasmus and more to be quickly disseminated across Europe.
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With the absence of hereditary kings, wealthy merchants formed oligarchies that governed the independent city states in northern Italy, and they also dominated political, economic, and artistic life.
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Johannes Gutenberg is credited with inventing the first printing press with movable type. The first full work ever printed was the Mazarin Bible. Printing quickly spread across Europe
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Medieval scholastics studied the classics the understand God. Renaissance humanists studied the classics to understand human nature and learn practical skills.
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Known as the ¨prince of the humanists¨ Erasmus was the most famous and influential humanist. He was a devout catholic committed to reforming the church from within, and while humanists wrote in vernacular he continued writing in Latin.
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Humanist scholars and others debated women´s character, nature, and role in society. Renaissance humanism represented a real advance for aristocratic women. Isabella D´Este was the most famous Renaissance woman. She was an art patron, and often played an important role in smaller Renaissance courts.
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Strove to become an ¨universal man¨. In his book ¨The Courtier, Baldassare Castiglionie¨ explained how upper-class men and women could become accomplished courtiers, and women were not expected ti seek fame as men did.
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The new monarchs retained their income while also taxing towns, merchants, and peasants. They created professional armies, and negotiated a new relationship with the Catholic Church
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Medieval kings received most of their income from their own estates and from grants of money from their vassals, they also shared power with the Church and were often subordinate to the pope. Powerful nobles waged war, taxed peasants, and enforced the law.
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The golden age of Florence Italy lasted nearly a century. King Charles VIII of France invaded Italy with a goal of conquering Naples . These invasions sparked a series of conflicts called the Habsburg-Valois Wars. Diplomacy and war became the keys to survival.
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Closely studied classical sources, and also sought to give humanism a specifically Christian content. Were also committed to moral and institutional reform, and helped encourage the Protestant Reformation.
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Lutheranism
Luther´s early life was dominated by a private struggle to find the key to personal salvation. Luther began to examine St. Pauls letter to the Romans, and read that ´the just shall be saved by faith.¨ His years of study prepared him and he understood that salvation was a gift freely given by God. -
Written by martin Luther
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conquered Aztec empire in Mexico
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Opposition to taxes on German serfs who had no legal rights
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established that planets orbit the sun
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Parliament that recognized Henry VII as the supreme head of the Church of England
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pope III authorized the society of jesus. those who joined were called jesuits
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treaty which allowed princes to dictate the religion of their lands
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He believed that human beings are self-centered and prone to violence, in a state of nature people know neither peace nor security, and that without government life would be intolerable and civilization impossilbe.
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proclaiming the toleration of Calvinism and recognizing the rights of French Protestants
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Discovered mountains and craters on moon
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A. Divine right of Kings
-James believed that royal authority came directly from God
-He also publishes a work called ¨The True Law of Free Monarchies¨ in which he explains that kings are also to be called gods
Charles I also was a firm believer of the divine right of kings -
the assassination of Henry left his 9 year old son as the second bourbon monarch
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Bohemian Phase
-Began as a religious civil war in Bohemia between the Catholics led by Emperor Ferdinand
-Ferdinands forces won a series of victories that left the Habsburgs and Catholics in control of Bohemia -
Causes of the War
1. Religious divisions
-In 1608 the Protestant states formed the Protestant Union to defend their interests
-The Catholics states then formed the Catholic league to defend their interests
2. Political divisions
- The Austrian Habsburgs wanted to reverse the Protestant gains while building a stronger monarchy
3. International Interference
-The Lutheran kings of Denmark and Sweden were prepared to defend Protestant interests -
-King Christian IV intervened to support the Protestants
-The imperial armies then crushed the Protestant forces
-Emperor Ferdinand issued the Edict of Restitution, restoring all Catholic properties lost. -
- Protestants, Dutch, and the French turned for help to the Lutheran king of Sweden Gustavus Adolphus defeated Wallenstein and the imperial forces -The Swedish victories prevented the Hubsburgs from uniting the German states
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Locke rejected the Hobbesian view that humans are innately brutish and that people are the products of their training, education, and experience. He formed the theory of ¨natural rights¨ which are derived from the law of nature which existed before the creation of the government.
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- The death of Adolphus prompted France to intervene on the Protestant side -French, Dutch, and Swedish armies burned German farms,and commerce
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The Cavaliers
- were aristocrats, nobles, and church officials who remained loyal to the king
-they favored a strong monarchy and an Anglican church
The Roundheads
-favored a Parliamentary monarchy and a church governed by ¨presbyters¨
Oliver Cromwell
-The roundheads beat the cavaliers
-organized an army of zealous Protestants called the New Model Army
-Cromwell and his supporters executed Charles I in 1649 -
Hundreds of Diplomats and the pope met in Westphalia, the pope´s objections were largely ignored, and the degree of secularization took place in Europe.
Each of the 300 German states received the right to conduct diplomacy and make treaties, rulers were allowed to decide the religious in their territory, and Calvinism was recognized as an acceptable faith. -
published leviathan
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Closing of protestant schools
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Published the principia
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The Bill of Rights
-Parliament required William and Mary to accept the bill of rights
-placed clear limits on the power of the English monarchy
England became a constitutional monarchy -
published second treatise of government
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a series peace treaties and ended the war of Spanish succession
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sequel to the war of austrian succession
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- Began in Great Britain in the late 18th century, it strengthened the size and significance of business, leaders, merchants, and the middle class, it also created a new class of urban workers 2.Believed in natural rights that governments must protect, supported civil liberties, favored representative government, opposed full democracy, and inspired revolts in France and Great Britain.
- Believed that a nation consists of a group with political identity, and stirred powerful forces for change
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ended the seven years' war
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combat ignorance and superstition by removing irrational customs, promoting religious toleration, and supporting education
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published by Adam Smith which was a landmark book that gave birth to classical economic thought
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marked the beginning of the French Revolution
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this confiscated the lands owned by the roman church, decreed the bishop and priest would be chosen by the people and paid by the state
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Performed by Edward Jenner
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Napoleon quickly took command of the new government and had all the power and made all the decisions. He enacted policies designed to transform France into an efficient modern state.
The Concordat of 1801
Napoleon understood the importance of ending the relationship of the French government and Catholic Church. The pope regained the right to confirm church dignitaries appointed by the French government and in return the pope accepted the loss of church properties. -
This movement privatized land formerly available to all for grazing and farming, concentrated land ownership in fewer hands. With no land to work, small farmers were displaced, which formed a pool of cheap labor.
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Napoleons desire for power led him to make three disastrous mistakes that led to his downfall, He closed all European ports to British, deposed Spains Bourbon rulers, and invaded Russia
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Traditional Institutions of power
1. Monarchy
2. Aristocracy
3. Church
4.Patriarchal family
Conservatism- believed that national, historic, and religious traditions are essential. Maintained that all charge should be gradual. -
Charles X vigorously opposed republicanism, liberalism, and constitutionalism. Eugene Delacroix captured the spirit of the uprising in his famous painting. His tribute to liberty portrayed a unified people dedicated to overthrowing tyranny.
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The July revolution in France helped spark discontent in Belgium. The congress of Vienna united the Austrian Netherlands with Holland to form a single kingdom of the Netherlands. Both Great Britain and France opposed intervention. In 1830 the great powers recognized Belgium as a neutral state
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Many boroughs were sparsely populated, and a few had no people at all, after decades of pressure from factory owners and merchants Parliament passed the Reform bill of 1632, which created a number of new districts representing heavily urban areas. Which also resulted in the supremacy of the House of Commons over the House of Lords.
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Britains disenfranchised workers demanded more sweeping reforms. Working-class leaders drew up a Peoples Charter that demanded universal manhood suffrage, a secret ballot, equal electoral districts, and the abolition of property requirements for membership in the House of Commons.
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A leading minister rejected demands for extending the franchise to the working class by proclaiming, ¨Enrich yourself and you will have the vote.¨ As tension and unrest gripped Paris, liberals, socialists, and bonapartists all vied for power.
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These revolutions failed because of internal divisions, a lack of popular support outside the cities, and the continued strength of conservative forces. The ideas of nationalism and national unification continued to grow and gain support.
