The roots of Yoga and Buddhism

<--- back to 30000 BCE - Prehistoric age in India

Period: 3500 BCE to 3300 BCE

The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago. But it was around 7000 BCE that Out of Africa migrants reached India and mixed with the earlier inhabitants of the subcontinent forming the earliest known urban culture of the Indian subcontinent. There was a gradual shift from dependence on wild resources to domestic plants and animals, sedentariness began, settled life spread, and gradually evolved into the Indus Valley civilisation.

The Harappan civilization or Indus Valley Civilization

Period: 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE

The Harappan civilization was a Bronze Age civilisation in the northwestern regions of South Asia. The cities were noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, drainage and water supply systems and techniques of handicraft and metallurgy. For Hindu nationalists, there is a cost to admitting that Aryans were not the first inhabitants of India as Harappan civilisation existed long before their arrival (and their Vedic culture was not the singular source of Indian civilisation)

Bronze Age in India [3300 BCE to 1800 BCE]

Period: 3300 BCE to 1800 BCE

In the Indian subcontinent, the Bronze Age began roughly 3,300 BCE, and lasted to roughly 1,300 BCE. It's worth noting that southern India never really experienced this phase, jumping instead straight from the Copper Age to the Iron Age

Ancient Egypt [3100 BCE to 332 BCE]

3100 BCE

Egypt was unified around 3100 BCE. and lasted as a leading economic and cultural influence throughout North Africa and parts of the Levant until it was conquered by the Macedonians in 332 BCE.
3200 Unification of Egypt
3100 Hieroglyphics
3000 Weaving from plant fibers
2650 Ppyramid
~2500 Basic furniture, wind instruments
~2000 Solar Calendar and terra-cotta pottery
1800 Belief in personal immortality
~1375 Akhenaton introduces monotheism
~1300 Transparent glass, use of Papyrus, pen and ink.

Fall of the Harappan Civilization (between 2600 and 1800 BC

2600 BCE

Indus Valley Civilisation. Around 2600 BCE, civilization in the Indus River Valley began to decline as people migrated eastward to the Himalayan foothills. Here, they shifted from a civilization composed of large cities to one of mostly small farming villages (map below). By 1800 BCE, most Harappan cities were almost completely abandoned. Climate change, violence and disease played a key role in the collapse of the Harappan civilization more than 3,000 years ago, according to a new study.

VEDAS - oral tradition [between 2000 adn 500)

2000 BCE

Vedic literature, including the Vedas, was transmitted orally between 1500 and 500 BCE. The Vedas were written down many centuries later, in 500/400 BCE, long after the end of the Vedic age. The Vedic religion developed into Brahmanical orthodoxy, where a hierarchy of social classes (caste) was defined and remained influential. Much of what we know about this period of ancient Indian history is due to the faithful transmission of the Vedas from one generation to the next.

Migration of the Aryans

Period: 2000 BCE to 1000 BCE

Arrival of the second set of immigrants (the Aryans) from the Eurasian Steppe, probably from the region now known as Kazakhstan. They likely brought with them an early version of Sanskrit, mastery over horses and a range of new cultural practices such as sacrificial rituals, all of which formed the basis of early Hindu/Vedic culture.

Abraham, the Hebrew patriarch [1800 BCE?]

1800 BCE

Apart from the Bible's chronology, there is no other source describing his actual existence but the Patriarch is a very important reference for Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Many scholars see the patriarchal age as a late literary construct and after a century of exhaustive archaeological investigation, no evidence has been found for a historical Abraham. It is largely concluded that the Torah, the books including the Genesis, was composed during the early Persian period, c. 500 BC.

Iron Age in India (1800 BCD to 200 CE )

Period: 1800 BCE to 200

The Iron Age succeeded Bronze Age and partly corresponds with the megalithic cultures of India. This corresponds to the transition of the Janapadas or principalities of the Vedic period to the sixteen Mahajanapadas or region-states of the early historic period, culminating in the emergence of the Maurya Empire towards the end of the period.

• Vedic Period Nearly
• Buddhism
• Jainism
• On the banks of the Ganga, the Mahajanapadas were a major civilization after the Indus Valley.

Babylonian Empire [1792 BCE to 539 BCE]

1792 BCE

The Babylonian Empire (southern Mesopotamia, currently Iraq) had many inventions: first written language, advanced geometry and astronomy, innovations in irrigation, and double-leveled walls, which were constructed all around Babylon. It is known for the Hanging Gardens created by Nebuchadnezzar II (Neo-Babylonian Period). The Empire fell several times due to invading armies and internal skirmishes. The Babylonian Empire was destroyed in 539 BC when the Persian Empire overtook it it.

Shang dynasty in China 1750-1027

1750 BCE

The Shang dynasty, also known as the Yin dynasty, made many contributions to Chinese civilization, but four in particular define the dynasty: the invention of writing; the development of a stratified government; the advancement of bronze technology; and the use of the chariot and bronze weapons in warfare.

VEDAS (written down between 1500 and 500 BCE)

1500 BCE

The Vedas are a large body of religious texts considered Shruti (Divine Knowledge), transmitted word-of-mouth since 2000/1500 BC, written down in 500 BC.
The four Vedas: **
Rig Veda
Sama Veda
Yajur Veda
Atharva Veda
**The sections of each Veda:
- Amhitas
- Brahmanas
- Aranyakas
- Upanishads Note: The oldest sutras are in the Brahmana and Aranyaka layers. Upanishads, therefore, came after the Vedas but were added to the texts later.
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Vedic Civilization [1500 BCE to 600, 500 or 400 BCE]

Period: 1500 BCE to 500 BCE

late Bronze Age and early Iron Age, the Vedic Age was between 1500 BC and 500 or 600 BC. This is the next major civilization that occurred in ancient India after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization and it resulted in the emergence of a hierarchy of social classes (castas). Vedic religion developed into Brahmanical orthodoxy. Vedic literature, including the Vedas, was composed in this period and transmitted word-of-mouth for centuries until it was written down in about 500/400 CE.

Upanishads [composed between 900 or 800 BCE and the end of the Vedic period - 200 BCE]

900 BCE

Composed towards the end of the Vedic Age, “Upanishads” were originally included in the Vedas, to which they formed commentaries; however, they were gradually separated and assumed their own identity. It explores concepts only dimly perceived in the earlier Vedas, including the idea that the material world is an illusion and so the emotions such as desire and suffering. To break the cycle of reincarnation involves renouncing human feelings that bind the soul to the material world.

Jainism [800 to the present]

800 BCE

Heterodox School - Jainism has today from 4 to 5m followers. It teaches that the path to enlightenment is through nonviolence and reducing harm to living things. Jains believe in reincarnation. This cycle of birth, death, and rebirth is determined by one's karma. The three main pillars of Jainism are ahiṃsā (non-violence), anekāntavāda (non-absolutism), and aparigraha (asceticism, including nakedness, symbolizing non-possession, fasting, body mortification, and penance).

Ancient Greek philosophy - Pre-Socratics [600 to 400 BCE]

600 BCE

Developed in the Greek colonies from the 6th century BC. Their efforts were directed toward the investigation of the ultimate foundation and the essential nature of the world, the principle (archè) of things their origin and disappearance. Main pre-Socratics:
- Thales (late 7th - first half 6th). The founder of the Ionian school in Miletus.
- Anaximander (610-609 - 547-546). Also a politician and astronomer.
- Anaximenes (546-545 - 528-525).
- Parmeid (550 - 450). Founder of the Eleatic School.

Life of Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) [563 BCE to 483 BCE]

563 BCE

Buddha (Gotama Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, Buddha Śākyamuni) is one of the most important Asian thinkers and spiritual masters of all time and his teaching formed the foundation for Buddhist philosophy, initially developed in South Asia, then later in the rest of Asia and now with a global following. Although there is no conclusive evidence for any specific date, among Buddhists/Theravāda school, he lived 623-543 B.C.E. but most current scholars locate the Buddha’s life 100 years earlier.

Confucius / China [551 to 479 BCE]

551 BCE

Promoter of original thought, unprecedented in the Chinese cultural landscape, his teaching was 'the attempt to elaborate an ethical conception of man in his wholeness and universality'. He provided a set of indications on the best way for man to conduct existence, according to the most important aspects of human nature, identifying and redefining what exactly 'being human' means and proposing a new model for self-realisation, aiming at the building of a prosperous and harmonious human community

Sankhya (Dualistic Orthodox School of Indian Philosophy)

550 BCE

The oldest philosophy. It views reality as composed of two independent principles, Puruṣa and Prakṛti. Puruṣa is the witness consciousness. It is absolute, independent, free, beyond perception, above any experience by mind or senses. Unmanifest Prakriti is matter or nature, including the human mind and emotions. It is inactive, unconscious, and is a balance of the three qualities/guṇas (sattva, rajas, and tamas). With contact with Purusha, this balance is disturbed and Prakriti becomes manifest.

Life of Mahavira (founder of Jainism) [540 BCE to 468 BCE]

540 BCE

Mahavira, also known as Vardhamana, was the 24th Tirthankara (supreme preacher) of Jainism. He was the spiritual successor of the 23rd Tirthankara Parshvanatha. Mahavira abandoned all worldly possessions at the age of 30 and left home in pursuit of spiritual awakening, becoming an ascetic. He practiced intense meditation and severe austerities 12.5 years, after which he attained Kevala Jnana (omniscience).

Śramaṇa tradition (ascetics) - around 500 BCE

500 BCE

Ascetic, one who performs acts of austerity", the śramaṇa tradition includes primarily Jainism, Buddhism, and others such as the Ājīvika. The śramaṇa religions became popular in the circles of mendicants from greater Magadha that led to the development of spiritual practices, as well as the popular concepts in all major Indian religions such as saṃsāra (the cycle of birth and death) and moksha (liberation from that cycle).

Buddhism [500 BCE to the present]

500 BCE

Buddhism is one of the major world religions (estimated at a billion followers). It is a non-theistic system based on the teachings of the Buddha. It defines the 4 Noble Truths as there is
1. suffering
2. cause of suffering
3. cessation of suffering
4. a way to the cessation of suffering, which is the Noble Eightfold Path (1) sīla (moral conduct): wise speech, action, livelihood. (2) samādhi (meditation): wise effort, concentration, mindfulness (3) paññā (wisdom): wise intention and view.

Charvaka [500 BCE]

500 BCE

Heterodox School - the Charvaka philosophy, also called Lokāyata, is an ancient school of Indian materialism. An atheistic school believed that the only source of knowledge is direct perception and that everything else, such as inference and scripture, is unreliable, that pleasure is the ultimate goal of human life and that one should pursue it without regard for the consequences. They rejected the idea of reincarnation and the afterlife and argued that death was the end of all consciousness.

Mahābhārata and Ramayana epics [around 400 BCE to 200 BCE]

400 BCE

Written in Sanskrit, revered as Smriti texts (remembered, not from divine origin, these two epics laid the foundation for Indian literary culture. Both the Ramayana and Mahabharata seem to have been composed by many different contributors over several centuries, not reaching their “final” form until around 400 or 200 CE.

Ājīvika [400 BCE]

400 BCE

Heterodox School - was a Śramaṇa movement diverging from Vedic religion, early Buddhism and Jainism. Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities but their precise identity is unknown. Ājīvika's original scriptures are probably lost and information available can be inaccurate to some degree. The oldest descriptions can be found in Buddhist and Jaina scriptures, but since these were competing groups, scholars question whether it has been fairly and completely summarized.

Mīmāṃsā [300–200 BCE]

300 BCE

Orthodox School, it deals with the theory and practice of sacrificial rites performed by an elite of Brahmin priests. Focused on refined reflection on the role of Sanskrit and perfect recitation. The school of Mīmāṃsā consists of both atheistic and theistic doctrines and considers Vedas as "eternal, author-less, [and] infallible". They disagreed with the Upaniṣads and other texts related to self-knowledge and spirituality. A key text of the Mīmāṁsā school is the Mīmāṁsā Sūtra of Jaimini.

BhagavadGita [dates controversy - 400 BCE to 200 CE]

300 BCE

'The Song by God', (written between 400 BCE and 200 CE) is part of the epic Mahabharata. It sets the dialogue between Prince Arjuna and his charioteer guide Krishna. Arjuna asks if he should renounce the war and seeks Krishna's counsel. Their dialogue (Krishna's answer is to "fulfill his duty") covers many spiritual, moral, ethical and philosophical dilemmas and the battlefield is probably an allegory for the struggles of human life. more

Stoicism (300 BCE/Greece-179 CE/Roman Empire)

300 BCE

Stoicism was initially developed in Greece by Zeno of Citium but it became popular and influential during the Roman Empire. Stoicism and Buddhism are remarkably similar philosophies created independently thousands of miles apart but
Stoicism declined after Marcus Aurelius due to changes in Roman society, the lack of charismatic teachers that would equal Musonius or Epictetus and the rise of Christianity, which absorbed significant portions of Stoic thought and practice.
https://dailystoic.com/

Spread of Buddhism in India [starting 300 BCE]

297 BCE

In the 3rd century B.C., Ashoka the Great, the Mauryan Indian emperor, made Buddhism the state religion of India. Buddhist monasteries were built, and missionary work was encouraged. Over the next few centuries, Buddhism began to spread beyond India.

Roman Empire [27 BCE - 476 CE]

27 BCE

The Roman Empire was the post-Republican state of ancient Rome and is generally understood to mean the period and territory ruled by the Romans following Octavian's assumption of sole rule under the Principate in 31 BC. It included territory in Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia, and was ruled by emperors. The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 conventionally marks the end of classical antiquity and the beginning of the Middle Ages.

Jesus Christ [6 to 4 BC – AD 30 or 33]

6 BCE

Jesus was a Jewish religious leader of the first century. A central figure in Christianity, most Christians believe that he is the incarnation of God the Son, and the long-awaited Jewish messiah. Virtually all modern scholars of antiquity agree on the historical existence of Jesus. The accounts of Jesus' life are contained especially in the New Testament. Academic research has produced various opinions on the historical reliability of the Gospels and how far they reflect the historical Jesus.

Nyāya [100 through CE 200 (CE]

100

Nyāya ("method", "rules" or "judgment") Philosophy states that nothing is acceptable unless it is by reason and experience (scientific approach). The founder of this philosophy is Gautam (author of Nyāya Sūtras). Nyāya accepted four sources of valid knowledge: perception, inference, comparison/analogy and expert's statements. It believes that human suffering results from mistakes produced by wrong knowledge (ignorance but also delusion). Moksha (liberation), is gained through right knowledge.

Classical Indian Period [200 CE to 700 CE]

Period: 200 to 700

Buddhism reaches Asia China [starting on 220 CE]

220

China [220 to 589 CE]
Japan in 552 CE

Vaiśeṣika (Orthodox School of Indian Philosophy)

300

Vaiśeṣika system is similar to Nyāya philosophy and is often studied together. However, it differs from the Nyāya in one crucial respect: where Nyāya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaiśeṣika accepted only two (perception and inference). Vaiśeṣika believes that knowledge and liberation are achievable by a complete understanding of the world of experience. It is known for its insights into naturalism where reality is composed of 5 substances (earth, water, air, fire, and space).

Yoga Philosophy (Dualistic Orthodox School of Indian Philosophy)

325

Derived from Samkhya philosophy is is based on the Yoga-sutras of Patanjali (founder of Yoga). It presents a method of physical and mental discipline, a practical path for self-realization (whereas the Samkhya emphasizes the attainment of knowledge of the self through concentration and meditation). Releasing Purusa from Prakriti through physical and mental discipline is the concept of Yoga. Tradition denies that Patanjali had a Buddhist influence, but academic studies prove otherwise.

Byzantine Empire [330 CE to 1453 CE]

330

The most important legacy of the Byzantine Empire is the preservation of Greek and Roman civilization during the Middle Ages. Byzantine civilization blended Christian religious beliefs with Greek science, philosophy, arts, and literature. They also extended Roman achievements in engineering and law. It existed from approximately 330 CE—when the Roman Empire was split—to 1453.

Pantajali

400

Author of the Yoga Sutras, a classical yoga text In Sanscrit. It is debated whether the sage Patañjali is the author of all the works attributed to him, as several historical authors with the same name are known. The school of yoga philosophy, which originated from Pantajalin's Yoga Sutras, emphasises practical techniques for self-realisation and mental discipline (while Samkhya philosophy - which serves as the basis for yoga philosophy - focuses on metaphysical analysis and dualism).

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

400

It is a collection of Sanskrit 195 sutras (aphorisms) on the theory and practice of yoga compiled by Patanjali who organized knowledge about yoga based on Samkhya notions of Purusha and Prakriti, but also closely related to Buddhism.
It refers to the 8 elements of practice: yama (abstinences), niyama (observances), asana (yoga posture), pranayama (breath control), pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses), dharana (concentration of the mind), dhyana (meditation) and samadhi (absorption).

The fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 CE)

476

The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 conventionally marks the end of classical antiquity and the beginning of the Middle Ages.

Muhammad, the Islamic prophet [570 to 632 CE]

570

Muhammad, was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monotheistic teachings of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets.

Medieval Era (700 CE to 1650CE)

Period: 700 to 1650

• Islam’s and Sufism’s Ascension
• South Indian kingdoms Bhamini and Vijayanagara were two of the most powerful kingdoms in medieval India.
• Sultanate of Delhi (1206 AD – 1526 AD)
• The arrival of Europeans Other North Indian kingdoms – Marathas and Sikhs

Vedanta (Orthodox School of Indian Philosophy)

788

"Vedanta" (conclusion of the Vedas) has foundational scriptures in the main Upanishads, the BhagavadGita and the Brahma Sūtras. Main schools:
1.Advaita-vedanta: non-dualist. There is only Brahma (the self) and everything else is an illusion.
2.Visistadvaita-vedanta: non-dualist - (followers of Vishna), Devotion to the creator God of the universe - the world is the real manifestation of God.
3.Dvalta-vedanta: dualist, distinction between God and creatures. (Hari-Krishina refers to this school).

Muslim invasions of India [1000 to1500 CE]

1000

Muslim invasions of India

Crusades [1096 to 1271]

1096

The First Crusade (1096-1099)
The Fall of Jerusalem.
The Second Crusade (1147-1149)
The Third Crusade (1187-1192)
The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204)
Final Crusades (1208-1271)

Decline of Bhuddhism in India [1101 to 1200 CE]

1098

The last large state to support Buddhism—the Pala Empire—fell in the 12th century. By the end of the 12th century, Buddhism had largely disappeared from India with the exception of the Himalayan region and isolated remnants in parts of south India.

Zen Buddhism in Japan [1200 CE]

1200

Zen Buddhism in Japan

Modern India (AD 1857 - to present)

Period: 1857 to 2023

Indian Rebellion of 1857
Birth of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885
Partition of Bengal in 1905
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre of 1919
Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920
Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930
Government of India Act 1935
World War II 1942
Indian Independence Act of 1947
Assassination of Gandhi 1948
Partition of India in 1947
India-China War of 1962
Indian Nuclear Program in 1974
Assassination of Indira Gandhi in 1984
Rise of Right-wing Politics from the Late 1990s

Sri Aurobindo / Founder of Divine Yoga [1872 – 1950]

1872

Was a philosopher, yogi, maharishi, poet, and Indian nationalist. He studied in UK, returned to India, was arrested for political reasons and in prison had mystical experiences. When freed, he developed the Integral Yoga. He believed that the end goal of spiritual practice could not only be a liberation from the world into Samadhi but would also be that of descent of the Divine into the world in order to transform it into a Divine existence. see more