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100
1st CENTURY
EARLY WRITING EDUCATION
From early recorded history, reading and writing instruction were taught in conjunction. In the 1st century, according to "Quintilian, the great Roman educator ... wooden tablets with letters" were used to teach reading and writing (Smith, 2002, p. 5). The use of the same tool for instructing both literacy elements implies an early understanding of the reciprical nature between reading and writing. -
100
PALEOLITHIC ERA
PICTURE WRITING
With the emergence of picture writing, reading a text is possible for the first time. These crude pictures represent single objets that depict scenes to recount events in prehistoric life (Smith, 2002, pp. 2-3). These early pictures on cave walls were meant to connect images with literal objects or events; the pictures were the text. Today early childhood teachers use picture books to represent single objects in a child's life to teach them to associate text with objects. -
100
25th CENTURY B.C.
ALPHABETS EMERGE
As reading and writing evolve, alphabets emerge to replace picture writing "to cope with the complexity of the language" (Smith, 2002, p. 3). Some forms of alphabet types include: Egyptian, Phoenician, Greek, Roman (Smith, 2002, p. 3). Modern alphabets reflect the complexity of the language and word sounds it is intended to represent. The English alphabet we use today to read and write is derived from the Roman alphabet. -
100
4700 B.C.
FIRST PIECE OF ALPHABET WRITING
An Egyptian tablet housed at the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford is considered the oldest piece of alphabet writing. This is significant as it repreents a higher level of text that can both be written and read. It also ushers in the way we use reading and writing to communicate today. The only letter that resembles our modern alphabet on this ancient tablet is the letter N (Smith, 2002, p. 4) -
Jan 1, 1450
Invention of the Printing Press
Gutenberg is able to mass produce books with his printing press faster than they can be hand copied. People are reading printed text--text not written in another's handwriting--for the first time. This also opens up a writer's audience to the masses.
"A Brief History of Penmanship on National Handwriting Day" -
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Familial Influence on Literacy Practices
How literacy practices are valued and modeled in the home has major influence on a child's view of literacy. This is as true in our classrooms today as it was in the home of Cotton Mather in the early 18th century. "Mather's own involvement with his children's literacy foreshadowed many of the topics of most interest to reading researchers today: ...the cohesiveness between reading and writing, and the relationship between literacy and life" (Monaghan, 1991, p. 342). -
Teaching Writing in the American Colony
Education shifts from optional to required in the early American Colonies when Massachusetts passes a law stating when the towns grow to 50 households, that a teacher must be selected to "teach all such children as shall resort to him to read and write" (Smith, 2002, p. 12). Today children are mandated across the country to attend school. While Massachusetts started the compulsory education laws, each state has it's own age range of compulsory school attendance (ave. 6-16). -
Motivation to Learn
The medium used to write can motivate instruction. German educator, Basedow, uses "the gingerbread method" to encourage students to learn the letters by having them "eat the alphabet"(Smith, 2002, p. 6). Early childhood teachers today still use various mediums of writing to motivate students to engage in reading and writing including sensory sand, shaving cream, paint, and technology such as iPads to motivate students to learn to read and write their letters. -
Spellers: Instructions for Right Spelling
This speller by George Fox, a clergyman, claimed to provide a balanced literacy instructional guide. It is described as "Instructions for right spelling and plain directions for reading and writing true English "(Smith, 2002, p. 24). This implies that a relationship is seen between instruction of all literacy three topics. -
Spellers: England's Perfect School-Master
These emerged as competition to the primer. While the title sounds narrow, spellers actually encompassed reading and wriitng instruction as well. Spelling was used as the gateway to be "observed by all that would Read and Write well (Smith, 2002, p. 24). -
Speller: A New Guide to the English Tongue
Among the sections of stories, this speller had a specific rules section. "Several pages were given over to rules for the correct spelling and writing of English" (Smith, 2002, p. 25). It is not clear whether the rules are prescriptive writing strategies or simply grammar and/or punctuatin rules. Though originally published in England, the first American reprint was done by Benjamin Franklin in 1774 (Smith, 2002, p. 25). -
Instructional Material
The New England Psalter was self-described as containing elements of reading and writing instruction. In conjuction with rules for reading, it also inlcuded rules for writing,or printing, such as "the use of capitals, notes and points, made use of in writing and printing" (Smith, 2002, p. 16). This resembles many language arts textbooks today which contain lessons in reading comprehension and written expression. -
Printing
Prior to commercial printing, students had to rely on copying a text or rote memorizaiton. As the colonies import more teaching resources, these printed resources become available to students and they no longer need to rely on copying from a text (Smith, 2002, p. 13). This results in the use of writing in reading instruction to decrese. -
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Shift to American Writings
Up until this time, texts used to teach literacy in America came from England. After the Amerinca Revolution, the new country's citizens wanted to use texts that reflected it's values, not those of the country it broke away from. "Shall the children of this great nation be compelled to read...none but the writings...of men who's views...are in direct opposition to our institutions and government" (Smith, 2002, p. 34)? This caused an influx in patriotic writing in educational texts. -
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Nationalistic Revisions
As the country gained independence, American educational materials were full of British influences. A nationalistic revision movement took place over the next century replacing British names and references with American ones (ex: "The Royal Oak, it was the tree/That Sav'd His Royal Majestie" became "The Charter Oak, it was the tree/That saved to us our Liberty") (Smith, 2002, pp. 57-58). -
First American Author of Educational Materials
Noah Webster became the first American author of educational materials. Described as having "a natural propensity for writing" he wrote a set of readers that met the demand of quality patriotic texts for children (Smith, 2002, p. 40). His reader, called A Grammatical Institute of the English Language consisted of sections addressing spelling, grammar, and reading and speaking. These were popular among Americans due to the swell of nationalism after gaining independence. -
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Noah Webster's Dictionary
Webster's origianl reader was split into 3 seperate texts; The American Spelling Book proved to be the most popular and influential. "It is said that the royalty from this book provided the entire support for Webster's family duringthe twenty years when he was writing his dictionary, even though e received only a cent a book as his share of the profits" (Smith, 2002, p. 41). Webster's writing still influences us today with the use of his dictionary as a reference for meaning and spelling. -
Teaching Method: Memorization
Early teaching strategies relied heavily on memorization. In a "Note to Teachers" written in one text it recommended "to commit to memory the Rules for teh right use of the Stops, or Points, and Other Characters Used in Writing and Printing" (Smith, 2002, p. 66). This did not require students to synthesize information but rather regurgitate facts back when asked by their instructor. -
Selections for Readers Influenced by the Quality of Writing
As readers began to go through the process of revisions and publishing improved editions, the focus on the writing of the pieces inlcuded became more important. For example, in the McGuffey’s Newly Revised Eclectic Fourth Reader,
“The reading exercises are selected from the best compositions of the model writers in our language” (Monaghan & Berry, 1999, pp. 15-16). This demonstrates the mutual relationship between reading and writing: good writing influences good reading and vice versa. -
Female Authors and Regional Selections
In a northern, male dominated market, Introduction to the Southern Second Class Reader: Familiar Tales for Children was a unique text. "The series of readers was unusual in that it was designed expressly for the southern market and written by a woman, at a time when the authorship of textbooks was overwhelmingly a male stronghold" (Monaghan & Berry, 1999, p.17). This reader began to break barriers for authors considered "non-traditional" (female, not from the north). -
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Opposing Viewpoints on Literacy Instruction in the African American Community
As America moved through the segregation and diversity issues facing the country, all areas of life were affected, including education. Two voices took strong stances on literacy instruction within their community. Washington and DeBois had differing opinions: Washington called for basic instruction to ensure sufficient jobs whereas DeBois preached an education of practically and creativity (Harris, 1992, p. 282). Both men advocated for the need of both reading and writing instruction. -
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Reconstruction Restricting Literacy in the African American Community
Litearcy instruction was restricted to African Amercans in the United States for a long span of time. Willis (2002) states that "During the Reconstruction era most African Americans did not know how to read or write and continued to live in the South under Jim Crow laws (racial, caste-like system in the southern and border states between 1877 through the mid-1960s that legalized segregation)" (p. 14). This would not end until the schools were desegregated after the Civil Rights Movement. -
Reader Stories ABOUT Writing
From MCGUFFEY’S 4TH ECLECTIC READ
"The tale of 'Susie’s Composition' is one of writer’s block: Susie is in tears because she can’t write a composition. Her mother’s solution is to tell her to write about what she can see from her window. The resultant piece is a success: 'it is easy enough to write if you have anything interesting to write about.' The questions include 'Why was Susie so troubled?' and 'Can you give her composition a proper subject [title]?'" (Monaghan & Berry, 1999, pp. 25-26). -
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Progressive Education: Word Method & Play
Creativity was a key component of this movement. Students were encouraged to play with words. Those subscribing to this pedagogy believed that "children should learn to read from their own stories, which they had dictated or written themselves" (Monaghan & Berry, 1999, p. 28). This encouraged extreme ownership over individual students' learning process and eliminated the necessity of published readers. -
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Writing in Calhoun Colored School--Student Literacy Program
The Calhoun Colored School emphasized literacy in a 3 part plan to build literacy in an illiterate community. Part 1 focused on the in-class "practice of written work-helping students to put their thoughts into words, to write, and to spell correctly. By observing students throughout the day, teachers also attempted to begin their literacy lessons by addressing the students' interests and by helping the students to make a connection between their thoughts and written words" (Willis, 2002, p.21). -
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Writing in Calhoun Colored School--Adult Literacy Program
The second component of the 3 part literacy program emphasizes adult literacy. This phase provides "free night school classes [which] offer the mothers and fathers of the day school children a chance to learn to read, write, and do simple arithmetic" (Willis, 2002, p.21-22). These classes provided parents an opportunity they were never extended before the Calhoun Colored School. -
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Writing in Calhoun Colored School
Established by Booker T. Washington, Charlotte Thorn, and
Mabel Dillingham, the Calhoun Colored School (CCS) was establised to provide a quality education for African Americans in rural Alabama. Children were taught literacy skills during the day while classes for adults were held at night. The CCS established a history of strong educational practices which bulit a community of strong readers and writers (Willis, 2002), p.37. -
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Writing in Calhoun Colored School--Elderly Literacy Program
The last component of the literacy plan which focused on writing instruction focused on the elderly. "Third, as part of a larger community outreach program, teachers and students extended the school's literacy program to the old folks who lived during slavery days. In the homes of the older people in the community they taught reading and writing" (Willis, 2002, p.22). -
The U.S. Census Bureau Definition of Illiteracy
When defining literacy at the turn of the century, a strong correlation was made between one's abilitiy to read and write. "The Census
Bureau defined illiteracy as the inability to write in any language, not necessarily English, and assumed that those who could not write, even if they claimed to read, could not read well" (Winston, 1930 as cited in Weber, 1993). Under this definition, approximately 11% of American citizens were classified as lilietrate (Winston, 1930 as cited in Weber, 1993). -
The Reading-Course for Farmers' Wives
Although the title indicates an emphasis on reading, writing was a key part of this women's litracy program. Reading materials were sent out to participants with a focused topic. Women were to read them, write responses to the questions given, and send their responses back. Few women sent in their responses despite "selections from the women's responses were edited and appeared in issues of the bulletins" (Weber, 1993, p.296). Publishing didn't encourage many women to write in due to their work. -
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Writing in Calhoun Colored School--Finer Aspects of Writing Instruction
As the Calhoun Colored School transitioned into the 20th century, its writing instruction evolved. The emphasis developed into a variety of generes such as letters and stories (Willis, 2002, p.28). Grammar was taught in the upper grades with a focus on "teaching grammar in the context of writing" (Willis, 2002, p.30). This marked a deeper emphasis on elements of literacy instruction. -
Writing as a Moral Gauge
When America was a colony, reading instruction was done out of moral principle. As the new nation grew, student writing began to play a role indicating a student's moral standing. In a speech delivered by George (1997), writing instructors found fault "reading into their students' writing signs of depravity and delinquency. Bad spelling, poor use of punctuation, and slang, they believed, signified laziness, weakness, negligence, lack of discipline, and even perniciousness." -
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Writing Reading Materials: Basal Reading Materials
The basal reader remained the go-to reading material. Writers made sure that "text difficulty was carefully controlled" (Pearson, 2000, p.7), Further, Pearson (2000) notes that "the basal reader In the earliest readers (pre-primer through first reader at least), vocabulary was sequenced in order of decreasing frequency of word usage in everyday written and oral language" (p.7) indicating how writers focused the development of learning materials for early readers to build reading skills. -
The First Grade Studies
According to Keller-Cohen (1993), the First Grade Studies found that basal readers ranged sub-par to equal to other reading texts. This caused the basals to undergo revision to remain relevant. Revisions included phonics in context and the retirement of Dick and Jane (Keller-Cohen, 1993, p.9). "It was the basals themselves, albeit in a radically altered form, that captured the marketplace," not the alternative texts used in the First Grade Studies (Keller-Cohen, 1993, p.9). -
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Writing Reading Materials: Basal Reading Materials cont.
Basal readers began to change during this timespan with the whole language movement. According to Pearson (2000), "One of the great ironies of whole language is that its ascendancy into curricular prominence is best documented by its influence on the one curricular tool it has most consistently and most vehemently opposed, the basal reader" (p.22). As whole language emphasized student choice in reading materials, basal readers offered a prescriptive reading selection only. -
Book that Challenged an Accepted Educational View
In 1971, Frank Smith published his book, Understanding Reading. His book challenged the common assumed relationship between student and teacher: teacher = giver and student = recipient of knowledge. "This certainly challenged the notion of the teacher as the individual who meted out knowledge and skills to passively waiting students" (Pearson, 2000, p.13). By writing his book, Smith paved the way for this active student mentality we see today. -
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Integrated Instruction
Integrated instuction sought to make connections between literacy skills both within language arts and among other subject areas. This is where the phrase “read like a writer” comes from (Pearson, 2000, p.21). It sounds like the origins of the current emphasis on reading and writing across the curriculum as well as content area literacy. -
Development of Proces Writing
According to Pearson (2000), "In the middle 1980s, writing achieved a stronghold in the elementary language arts curriculum that it had never before held" (p.20). Writing was viewed as process-oriented and skill based with an emphasis on constructing knowledge, particularly making sense of what a student had read. Pearson (2000) said it well when he stated, "Finally, we began to see reading and writing as inherently intertwined, each supporting the other (p.21). -
Workforce 2000: A Report on Literacy Needs in 21st Century Workforce
Keller-Cohen (1993) stated that schools are now seen as the primary place individuals gain literacy skills. Modern employers are requiring more litearcy skills to be competitive in the global economy; however, employers don't feel schools are preparing students for the rigor of the real world work force. The report determined schools need dramatically higher educational standards (Keller-Cohen, 1993, p.299-300). -
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NCTE Emphasizes Sociocultural Perspective
Students' discourses are being identified and embraced in the classroom, especially in their relation to literacy instruction. Educators are recognizing "children's uses of pop culture texts could enrich teachers' understanding of the link between students' unofficial peer worlds and reading and writing instruction" (Alvermann, 2010, pp. 77-78). By tapping into students' knowledge and interests outside the classroom, teachers can have a positive influence on literacy instruction the classroom. -
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Writing Reading Materials: Basal Reading Materials cont.
To stay relevant, Pearson (2000) states "Basal programs appropriated or, as some whole language advocates have argued, 'basalized' the activities and tools of whole language" (p.22). Elements "basalized" include emphasis of literature as a whole text (as opposed to excerpts or adaptations), de-emphasizing vocabulary and phonics, including higher order thinking reader comprehension questions and authentic writing process task, and packaged the materials as complete lesson sets (p.22). -
Modern Political Emphasis on Research in Reading + Writing
Research has always played a role on educational practice from colonial times to today. A modern example: "1998 Assembly Bill 1086 prohibited the use of Goals 2000 money for professional developers who advocated the use of context clues over phonics or supported the use of inventive (sic) spellings in children's writing" (p.29). Colonial literacy laws required citizens to acquire literacy skills; modern literacy laws dictate how citizens acquire literacy skills in school. -
No Child Left Behind Signed into Law
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) was signed into law. This legislation was enacted with the ideal that it would help all students to learn the educational skills necessary to be successful. NCLB was the vision to fix what was seen as a broken educaiton system. Despite its noble goals, NCLB created a cultuue of standardized tests and failing labeles. Common Core State Standards would follow up NCLB as a "revision" of this national policy. -
NCTE Definition of 21st-Century Literacies
As new technoloties boomed, NCTE embraced it in literacy education. They issued a statement regarding technology and literacy: "The statement contains new information in one respect: support for the digital literacies made possible by advances in new information communication technologies. At the same time, it addresses two age-old questions: What counts as reading? and, hence, How should reading be taught" (Alvermann, 2010, p.29)? Instead of ignoring or resisting technology, NCTE embraced it. -
NCTE’s Strategy for Responding to the Common Core State Standards
The National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) plays an active role in literacy education. When the move to Common Core State Standards (CCSS) began, NCTE worked to influence the subsequent drafts of CCSS despite not being asked to consult from the beginning (Alvermann, 2010, p.17). CCSS are now in place. Time and reseach will tell how CCSS will impact our nation's students and the education they recieved during the latest educational movement. -
National Writing Day
NCTE has a political presence to try and give teachers a voice on the legislation that influences their classrooms and instruction. From national policy to literacy awareness, NCTE is a voice in government. For example, National Writing Day was made possible by the great works of NCTE and other organizations that make literacy a priority (Alvermann, 2010, p.17-18). -
Cursive to Print
Early texts were handwritten for readers. Words appeared on tiles as connected letters (cursive); as time pasted there is a shift to individual letters (print) (Smith, 2002, p. 4). The demand for printed text grew as more people were becoming educated. Charlemagne is credited for direcitng the shift toward print (Cohen).
"A Brief History of Penmanship on National Handwriting Day"