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In this year, Mexico achieved independence from Spain with the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba and the entry of the Army of the Three Guarantees into Mexico City on September 27, 1821. Agustín de Iturbide was later proclaimed emperor in 1822. -
The Pastry War (1838–1839), also known as the War of the Cakes, was a conflict between France and Mexico. It started when a French pastry chef, Monsieur Remontel, claimed that Mexican officers had looted his shop in Mexico City in 1832. He demanded compensation from the Mexican government, but his claim was ignored. France used this as a pretext to demand 600,000 pesos in reparations for French citizens in Mexico, a sum far greater than the actual damages. -
A conflict driven by territorial expansion and disputes over Texas. The war began after the U.S. annexed Texas in 1845, which Mexico still considered its territory. President James K. Polk sought to acquire California and New Mexico, and tensions escalated when U.S. troops moved into disputed land between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande.
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The war between Mexico and the United States (1846-1848) ended with Mexico’s defeat and the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. As a result, Mexico lost over half of its territory. This period also saw continued instability, leading to further foreign interventions, such as the French intervention in 1862.
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This treaty ended the war between Mexico and the U.S. Mexico ceded California, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, and parts of Colorado, Wyoming, Kansas, and Oklahoma in exchange for $15 million. -
This likely refers to the consequences of the 1846-1848 war, as Mexico was not at war with the U.S. in 1857. That year, Mexico enacted the Constitution of 1857, which led to internal conflicts, including the Reform War (1857-1861) between liberals and conservatives. -
France, supported by Mexican conservatives, invaded Mexico in 1862. Despite Mexico’s victory in the Battle of Puebla (May 5, 1862), France later installed Maximilian of Habsburg as emperor in 1864. The republicans, led by Benito Juárez, eventually defeated the French and executed Maximilian in 1867.
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Porfirio Díaz assumed the presidency after winning the Tuxtepec Revolution, marking the beginning of the Porfiriato, a period of economic growth and stability but also repression and social inequality. -
On November 20, 1910, Francisco I. Madero called for an uprising against Porfirio Díaz, starting a conflict that led to the fall of the Porfirio regime in 1911 and a long struggle for power in Mexico. -
called for the nullification of the fraudulent 1910 election, declared Porfirio Díaz's presidency illegal, and called on Mexicans to revolt on November 20, 1910, marking the start of the Mexican Revolution -
a document drafted by Emiliano Zapata and Otilio Montaño, proclaimed on November 28, 1911, in Ayala, Morelos, during the Mexican Revolution, that denounced President Francisco I. Madero and outlined a vision for land reform and Zapatista demands -
opposed the presidency of Victoriano Huerta and marked a key moment in the Mexican Revolution, -
a manifesto that led to the rebellion against President Venustiano Carranza, demanding his resignation, the reinstitution of law and order, and the convening of election