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Nationalist forces in Italy rebelled against their foreign leaders. This happened in Parma and Modena in 1831.
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In Sardinia the kingdom adopted a liberal constitution.
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In 1848 the uprisings were crushed.
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Republican forces fomented a revolt against the pope, declaring the Republic of Rome in 1848
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In 1852 Camillo di Cavour became prime minister of Sardinia.
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The nation was officialy united in 1861; the king of Sardinia was crowned Victor Emmanuel II later that year.