-
Thomas Edison
Edison backed educational films and predicted that books would be replaced by motion pictures.This did not happen as he expected. Reiser, 2001 -
Period: to
Early textbooks on visual instruction
1921: The Cinema handbook written by Austin C. Lescarboura focused on the mechanical aspects of visual instruction.
1922: The Motion pictures for community needs book by Gladys Bollman focused on how visual materials could be used in settings such as educational, religious work and social work.
1924: Visual Education published from the experimental studies of the University of Chicago had some helpful material on the use of film in the classrooms. -
B.F. SKINNER
Skinner began experimenting with “Skinner boxes” that shaped behavior via reward and punishment, and coined the behaviorist terms "operant conditioning" and "shaping behavior."
[Image Source] -
Visual education texts published in the 1930s
Three important books related to visual instruction were published:
Brunstetter's How to use the Educational Sound film
Edgar Dale et.al's Motion Pictures in Education
Hoban's Visualizing the Curriculum -
Period: to
World War II
Division of Visual aids for War Training oversaw the production of 457 sound motion pictures, 432 silent filmstrips, 457 instructor's manuals. -
EDGAR DALE
Edgar Dale developed the Cone of Experience which depicted the various teaching levels and materials with emphasis on audio-visual media. -
ALAN TURING
Turing published the article Computing Machinery and Intelligence which takes a theoretical and scientific perspective on whether machines can think. -
Educational Television
The FCC designated 242 channels for educational use. This was an unprecedented opportunity to construct channels for instructional purposes..
Image source -
Sputnik
Russia launched Sputnik, which motivated the US to fund math and science education
Image source -
B. F. Skinner
Skinner published "The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching". In this book, behaviorist Skinner urged the use of the Teaching machine as a resource for teachers to effectively control students learning and improve teacher-student relations by freeing up teachers time that can be diverted towards the student.
Source -
GORDON PASK
Gordon Pask and his collaborators had a patent to develop a range of teaching machines based on cybernetic principles. Their adaptive teaching machine that taught an user keyboard skills, measured user responses during lessons. The machine would then build its own model of the user's learning process and accordingly changes following prompts focusing on the keys the user had the most difficulty with.
Image source -
BENJAMIN BLOOM
1956 saw the work of Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues on the Taxonomy of Educational objectives. The premise of their work was that "all learners can succeed". It was a hierarchical approach to learning where a learner progressed by mastery of subskills with support from programmed instruction, audio visual materials etc.. A major implementation of behavioral objectives resulted after his work.
Image source -
NOAM CHOMSKY's Takedown
Noam Chomsky published a savage review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior. It is considered a turning point in a rising tide against behaviorism.
Image source -
Mid 1960s
Public television focused more on general education rather than in-school material.
Image source -
ROBERT MAGER: Writing Objectives
Mager wrote "Preparing Objectives for Programmed Instruction". "The book describes how to write objectives that include a description of desired learner behaviors, the conditions under which the behaviors are to be performed, and the standards (criteria) by which the behaviors are to be judged."
Reiser, 2001, p.59 -
ROBERT GAGNE's Nine events of instruction
1965 Gagne’s nine events of instruction (from The Conditions of Learning):
1. Gaining attention
2. Informing learners of the objectives
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning
4. Presenting the stimulus
5. Providing learner guidance
6. Eliciting performance
7. Providing Feedback
8. Assessing performance
9. Enhancing retention and transfer -
MICHAEL SCRIVEN: Formulative Evaluation
Scriven emphasized the need for and importance of testing and revising educational materials as they were being created and before finalizing. Reiser, 2001, p. 61 -
Period: to
Personal computer era
The advent of home computers also started a revolution in CAI (Computer Aided Instruction) -
SUSAN MARKLE
Susan Markle decried lack of rigor in testing processes and prescribed detailed procedures for evaluating materials both during and after design process. -
Period: to
IT Publications in the 1980s
(1980) Seymour Papert publishes Mindstorms
(1983) Merrill established The Component Display Theory
Component Display Theory specifies four primary presentation forms: rules, examples, recall and practice as well as prerequisites, objectives, helps, mnemonics, and feedback.
(1983) Howard Gardner publishes Frames of Mind
(1984) David Kolb publishes Experiential Learning
Source -
Period: to
Performance Technology Movement
The performance technology movement "broadened the scope of the instructional design field."
Reiser, 2001, p.63 -
JEROEN J G van MERRIENBOER
Jeroen J G van Merrienboer refines the Four-Component Instructional Design System (4C/ID-model) he developed early in 1992. The 4C/ID-model focuses on the integration and coordinated performance of task-specific constituent skills rather than on knowledge types, context or presentation-delivery media. The 4C/ID model is commonly associated with design and training programs focused on a very complex set of skills. http://my-ecoach.com/project.php?id=12152&project_step=26144 -
ROBERT REISER
Reiser publishes A History of Instructional
Design and Technology, which sums up IT history to that time (2001) and proposes a definition of the field.
[Source](ETR&D, Vol, 49, No, 1, 2001, pp, 53-64; ETR&D, Vol, 49, No, 2, 2001, pp, 57-67)
Image source -
Oculus Rift VR Headset released
VR (Virtual Reality) and AR (Augmented Reality) may revolutionize IT near-term -
Bibliography
