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World War II
Audiovisual devices were used extensively in the military services, and in industry. During the war the U.S. Army Air Force produced 400 training films, and 600 filmstrips from mid-1943 to mid-1945.Other media materials used during this time were overhead projectors, slide projectors, audio equipment, simulators, and flight training devices. -
Origins of Instructional Design (World War II)
Educators, and Psychologists Robert Gagne, Lesile Briggs, and John Flanagan conducted research for developing military training materials, and were great influences on the development of training materials in general. Training materials were developed as a result of theories of instruction, learning, and human behavior. -
Theories of Communication
Theories or models of communication focused on the communication process, including a sender, receiver, message, medium in which the message was sent. -
Programmed Instruction Movement
Systems Approach presents instruction based upon specific behavioral objectives, with the steps to achieve the objectives, setting up procedures to try out and revise the steps, validating the instruction. B.F. Skinner Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching, suggest that programmed instructional materials should present instruction in small steps, require active responses to questions, and immediate feedback for self-paced learning. -
Behavioral Objectives
Identifying and preparing objectives - Robert Mager. The conditions under which the objectives are to be performed, the standards (criteria), by which the behaviors are to be judged, and the action the student is required to perform (the behavior). Ralph Tyler the father of behavioral objectives, states "each objective must be defined in terms, which clarify the kind of behavior the course should develop." -
Instructional Television
The most important factor to affect the audiovisual movement was the use of television as a medium for delivering instruction. The growth was propelled by two factors: the decision by the government to set aside 242 channels for education, and funding provided by the Ford Foundation. By 1955 there were 17 stations; 1960 there were greater 50 stations. This explosion included closed-circuit television, and college courses taught via this medium. -
Test Criterion-Referenced Testing Movement
Used to measure how well a student(s) can perform a particular behavior or set of behaviors, and student entry level behaviors that an instructional program teaches -
Early Instructional Design Models
In the early and mid-1960s, the concepts previously discussed tasks analysis, objective specification, and criterion-referenced testing were linked together to form a process, or model for systematically designing instructional materials. Other Instructional Systems Models include: Bela Banathy (1968), Barson (1967), and Hamerus (1968). -
Domains of Learning, Events of Instruction, and Hierarchical Analysis
The five domains or types of learning outcomes. Nine Events of Instruction. Hierarchical Analysis (aka learning task analysis, or instructional task analysis) states learning should be designed so that learners would have to master the subordinate skill before performing the superordinate skill in the intellectual domain. -
Formative Evaluation and Summative Evaluation
Micheal Scriven - Discovered the need to try-out (pilot) drafts of materials with learners prior to implementing and finalizing. Many instructional products were not tested until 1950s and 60s, but lacked rigor in the process. Susan Markle prescribed detailed procedures for evaluating materials during and after the design process (formative, and summative evaluations). -
Systems Approach
During the 1970s instructional design models increased; Dick & Carey (1978), Gagne & Briggs (1974), Gerlach & Ely (1971), and Kemp (1971). Many organizations adopted ID Models in the 1970s:- U.S. Military, Academia, Graduate programs were developed for colleges, and Universities, Business, and Industry, and internationally. -
Growth and Redirection
Instructional design processes and textbooks were produced for ID and teachers. Instructional centers of higher education grew through the mid-1970s, but diminished 25% by 1983. There was more interest on applying the principles of cognitive psychology on ID; this had an insignificant on the ID. Computers had a great effect on the field of ID, and hence the development of computer-based instruction. New models were being considered to embrace interactive technology in education. -
Using Computers for Instructional Purposes
Computers were first used earlier than 1980 to train using CAI in 1950s, and 1960s. However, CAI had little impact on education. By 1983, 40% of all elementary schools, and 75% of secondary schools were using computers in America. In 1995 teachers reported little or no use of computers for instructional purposes beside computer related skills, and word processing. However, computers and new technologies are having more of an impact on training and education than in previous years. -
The Importance of Performance; Human Performance Improvement
Emphasis on :
-Job performance
- Business results
- Non-instructional solutions
- Constructivist Views of Teaching and Learning:
- Emphasizes authentic learning tasks or learning in a real world environment
Computers were used:
- As an aid to improve on-the-job performance
- Electronic performance support tool for on-the-job performance
- ID began discussing the use of computer-based knowledge management systems to support performance -
Recent Developments (Technology, and Online Training)
Distance learning increased in higher education courses; online is being used in K-12 with some states having full-time online schools. College faculty used social media for instruction 50% of the time, along with online videos, podcasts, and blogs.Availability to computers, and internet has increased by 93%. Teachers use computers for research, problem solving, analyzing data, developing multimedia presentations, creating art, music, movies, webcasts, and graphic displays. -
Twenty-First Century Learning
Increased use of the internet as means of presenting instruction. Growth of online learning in business, industry, military, K-12, and higher education. Increased demand for online courses. New job opportunities for IDs and new challenges of identifying effective means of engaging learners, and delivering instruction. -
Technology, and Multimedia Interactions
Technology permits access to instruction 24/7. Teachers use chat rooms, email, bulletin boards, and the internet as means to interact with students. In addition, ELearning, mlearning, microlearning, tablets, smartphones, and social media (Facebook, LinkedIn) is being leveraged as a means for supporting instruction.
