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The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, emerges as a philosophical and intellectual movement in Europe. Key figures such as René Descartes and Francis Bacon lay the groundwork for rational thinking and scientific inquiry.
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Isaac Newton publishes his groundbreaking work, Principia Mathematica, which establishes the laws of motion and universal gravitation. This work solidified the importance of empirical evidence and mathematical reasoning in scientific discoveries. -
Montesquieu publishes "The Persian Letters," a sarcastic novel that criticizes French society and explores ideas of religious tolerance and separation of powers.
This work influenced later thinkers and contributed to the development of political theories. -
Denis Diderot began publishing the "Encyclopedia," a comprehensive compilation of knowledge covering various subjects. This work aimed to disseminate knowledge to a wider audience and challenges traditional authority by promoting reason and critical thinking.
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Rousseau published "The Social Contract," which advocated for popular sovereignty and the idea that governments should be based on the consent of the governed. His ideas on democracy and individual freedom greatly impacted political philosophy.
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Voltaire published "Philosophical Dictionary," a collection of essays that promotes freedom of thought, religious tolerance, and criticism of established institutions. His writings became influential in shaping public opinion during the Enlightenment.
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The American colonies declared their independence from British rule, asserting the rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. This event reflected Enlightenment ideals and inspires other movements for independence
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The French Revolution erupted with the storming of the Bastille, symbolizing the overthrow of the monarchy and the beginning of radical political and social changes. The revolution was driven by Enlightenment ideas of equality, liberty, and fraternity.
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Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in France through a military coup d'état, ending the revolutionary period.
He established himself as First Consul and later becomes Emperor, ushering in an era of Napoleonic rule. -
Napoleon introduced the Napoleonic Code, a comprehensive legal system that codified laws based on Enlightenment principles.This code emphasized equality before the law, property rights, and religious freedom.
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The British navy, under Admiral Horatio Nelson, defeated the combined French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar. This naval victory secured British dominance at sea and prevented Napoleon's planned invasion of Britain
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Napoleon implemented the Continental System, an economic blockade aimed at weakening Britain by forbidding trade with continental Europe.This policy ultimately failed to cripple the British economy and leads to resentment among other European nations.
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Napoleon launched a disastrous invasion of Russia with over 600,000 troops, resulting in a catastrophic defeat due to harsh winter conditions and Russian resistance. This defeat weakened Napoleon's hold on power and marked a turning point in his military campaigns.
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The Congress of Vienna convened to redraw the map of Europe and establish a balance of power after the Napoleonic Wars. Key figures such as Klemens von Metternich worked towards restoring stability and suppressing revolutionary ideas.
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Following Napoleon's defeat, he was abdicated and is exiled to the island of Elba under the terms of the Treaty of Fontainebleau. This treaty marked the end of his rule and restored the Bourbon monarchy in France.
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The Concert of Europe, also known as the Congress System, was established as a mechanism for maintaining peace and stability in Europe. This system involved regular diplomatic meetings among major European powers to address common interests and prevent conflicts.
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The Battle of Waterloo took place, where a coalition led by the Duke of Wellington defeated Napoleon's forces. This decisive battle ended Napoleon's Hundred Days rule and leads to his final exile on the island of Saint Helena.
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- The Holy Alliance was formed by Russia, Austria, and Prussia, with the goal of promoting Christian principles and conservative governance. The alliance reflected the desire to maintain traditional social and political structures in the aftermath of the French Revolution and Napoleonic era.
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Olympe de Gouges published a declaration demanding equal rights for women, challenging the male-centric nature of the French Revolution. Her work highlighted gender inequality and advocates for women's rights within the revolutionary context.
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The Committee of Public Safety, led by Maximilien Robespierre, initiated a period known as the Reign of Terror.
Thousands were executed as part of a campaign to suppress counter-revolutionary activities, leading to widespread fear and instability.