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Girl Guides Established in Kenya 1975
World Association for Girl Guides and Girl Scouts (WAGGGS) is an organization that seeks to invest in young women leaders globally through facilitating girls' involvement in direct project work, educational programs, leadership training, regional campaigns and advocacy work. The Kenyan chapter of WAGGGS gained full membership in 1975 along with the establishment of the organization's African Regional Committee. As of 2018 the Kenyan chapter had a total of 382,476 Girl Guides.* -
Akina Mama wa Afrika founded 1985
Akina Mama wa Afrika is a grassroots, feminist-Pan-African leadership development organization designed to build a network of African women ready to influence policy and movements through research and leadership development. Akina Mama wa Africa's seeks the amplification of African women's voices in major platforms to improve the political, economic, and social condition of African women. This includes their work on African girls. Link text -
World Conference on Education for All (EFA) 1990
The World Conferenceon Education for All (EFA) was held in Jomtien, Thailand was the first international conference that called for the placement of increased focus and importance education for girls around the world. This was based on economic assessments valuing girls education as a way to improve economic wellbeing, child survival, and family health of the nation.
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"Girl Power" and Riot Grrls
"Girl Power" has its origins in the early 1990s from middle-class, white, majority queer-identifying women who referred to themselves as "Riot Grrls". The phrase was an act of reclamation and restructuring of what it meant to be a girl; a force of power and an active agent within a hierarchical society. With roots in punk rock music, external aesthetic expression to symbolize resistance was also a large part of the movement.
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LITERATURE: Meeting at the Crossroads: Women’s Psychology and Girls’ Development
In a five year case study, Brown and Gilligan examine the disassociation between girls and their own feelings, thoughts and desires as a consequence of the expectations placed on them by older generations and/or parental figures. The loss of girls' own voices is a significant problem the authors try to address. Instead, case studies found girls to voice what they believed was "correct" in the eyes of greater society. Over 100 girls of various ages in an Ohio day school took part in the study. -
LITERATURE: The Girl's Own: Cultural Histories of the Anglo-American Girl by Claudia Nelson and Lynne Vallone
Girl's Own features a collection of 11 essays depicting the nature of girlhood for 19th century English and American girls. Two themes are found in the pieces within the collection: work constructed as "girls work" (what society expected of girls) and actual representations of girls within greater society. Sexualization of the girl body, consumerism, the family structure and power dynamics and their influence of the transitioning nature of girlhood are all discussed within the collection. -
The United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women
The Fourth World Conference on Women, convened in Beijing, China 1995, sought to continue efforts toward the advancement of all women in all societal spheres. In setting the Beijing Platform for Action, the 'girl-child' was identified as one of the platform's 12 areas of critical concern. The large scale, formal recognition of the plight of the girl-child marks a milestone for the advancement girls globally, as girls and their realities had often been merged with that of women. -
LITERATURE: The New Girl: Girls' Culture in England, 1880-1915 by Sally Mitchell
Mitchell focuses on British girlhood in the turn of the century while analyzing history and literature from the time period. The representation of girls within various outlets, such as books and magazines, led Mitchell to form 'The New Girl' archetype - a girl that "every" girl, despite class difference, could aspire to become. Importantly, Mitchell emphasizes girl's perception of girls, not greater societies opinions on ideal girlhood. -
Girls Action Foundation (GAF) founded in 1995
GAF is a grassroots NGO based in Canada committed to helping girls in underserved communities become change agents within their respective realities. The GAF model has its roots in feminist theory, a model that allows girls to tap into their personal experience and base their work off of their own perception of their worlds. Through service based training, convening on a national level, research and networking GAF addresses both individual and systemic issues for girls in their communities. -
LITERATURE: Reviving Ophelia: Saving the Selves of Adolescent Girls by Mary Pipher
Psychologist Mary Pipher examines the negative effects of various societal pressures on girls in the global north. Through her case studies of her personal female clients, Pipher demonstrates the early trauma undertaken by girls stemming from negative cultural messages about girls which subordinates, undermines, and mutes their voices within society. Appearance and weight are the main areas of concern for the girls within the study. -
1997 Kenyan General Elections - Moi elected President
Daniel arap Moi, candidate of the Kenyan African National Union (KANU), is re-elected as President in the 1997 Kenyan General Elections. KANU won the majority of seats in Kenyan Parliament (107/210). -
US Embassy Bombing in Nairobi, Kenya
Al-Qaeda claims responsibility for the simultaneous bombings of US Embassies in Nairobi, Kenya and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 224 are killed and thousands more injured. -
UN Establishes Millennium Development Goals
Established at the Millennium Summit of the United Nations in 2000, the Millennium Development Goals are 8 international development goals set to be achieved by 2015. "Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women" was goal #3, with a specific target of "eliminat[ing] gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and in all levels of education no later than 2015."
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African Women's Development Fund Founded in 2000
The African Women's Development Fund (AWDF) is a grassroots NGO based in Accra, Ghana founded by three African women that supports local, national, and regional women owned organizations that target gender equality and development. By providing grants to African-Women-led organizations that may not have access to funds due to various circumstance, AWDF has financially assisted over 500 organizations since its creation. *
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United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative established by UN
UNGEI was established in 2000 as a flagship of the Education For All initiative. It was created to uphold Sustainable Development Goal# 4 through: "effective inclusion of marginalised and excluded groups; elimination of school-related gender-based violence; improved learning outcomes for girls; and increased transition to secondary school and post-primary learning opportunities."
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LITERATURE: Sugar and spice, and everything nice: Cinemas of Girlhood
Gateward and Pomerance turn a critical eye toward girl characters in film and films meant for girl audiences. Main findings conclude that pop culture creates a set of stereotypes around girlhood that eventually transfer and determine girls' reality. Girls become fixed by continuing narratives of girlhood being placed on them through media. Femininity in film, they claim, is limited in that certain "types" of female characters (i.e. - "the nerdy girl" or "the angry girl") are recycled. -
2002 Kenyan General Elections - Kibaki elected President
Mwai Kibaki of the National Rainbow Coalition (NRC) ends Daniel arap Moi's 24-year presidency in Kenya. Kibaki's win also marks the end of the KANU party's rule, marking this as the party's first loss since independence in 1963. -
The Girl Effect launched by Nike Foundation
The Girl Effect was launched by the Nike Foundation in 2004. The Girl Effect is a non-profit organization that identifies the girl child as the answer to development, and connects girls regionally and globally through various online mediums. It pushes for investment in the girl so that girls can maximize their full economic potential. Backed by the UN and various powerful international partners, it is a significant player in the global girlhood scene.
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Akili Dada founded by Dr. Wanjiru Kamau-Rutenburg
Akili Dada is a Kenyan based, grassroots NGO founded by African feminist and scholar Dr. Wanjiru Kamau-Rutenburg in 2005. According to their website, AD is a "leadership incubator nurturing a generation of girls and young women from underprivileged backgrounds whose commitment to the underserved will transform their communities" (Akili Dada). There is an emphasis on the positioning of girls to obtain major policy making/leadership positions within Kenya and the world. -
New Constitution Draft Proposed and Rejected
Violence in Nairobi, Kenya erupts over a new proposed constitution draft in 2004, as protestors believe it still gives too much power to the President. The proposed new draft introduced methods of curbing presidential power by Parliament and the introduction of the position of Prime Minister.
Voters reject the new constitution in a 2005 referendum as a sign of retaliation againstPresident Kibaki. Kibaki replaces his cabinet. -
Ellen Johnson Sirleaf elected President of Liberia
Ellen Johnson Sirleaf became the 24th President of Liberia and the first female head of state in Africa in 2006. Sirleaf's many accomplishments and her position as a head of state helped enhanced the visibility of African women's leaders and increased conversations and initiatives for higher female representation in positions of power throughout the continent.
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First four Akili Dada Scholarships Awarded
Akili Dada awards its first 4 scholarships to its girl participants. Funds were drawn directly from Dr. Rutenberg's marital gifts. Since the original scholarships, Akili Dada has created partnerships with 3 Kenyan high schools, in which it pays for school balances and fees for selected dada's. Akili Dada includes programs for girls ranging from 13-30 years old. Funding today is gathered through donations, as well as through personal salary contributions by Akili Dada staff members. -
2007 Kenyan General Elections - Kibaki elected President
Mwai Kibaki secures a controversial win over Raila Odinga in the 2007 Kenyan General Elections. The disputed election results, further exacerbated by existing tribal tensions between the Kikuyu (Kibaki) and Luo (Odinga) tribes, lead to a country-wide outbreak of violence immediately following the official election results. More than 1500 were killed, over 300,000 displaced, and thousands were injured. Link text -
2007 UN Interagency Task Force on Adolescent Girls
In 2007, UN Interagency Task Force on Adolescent girls was established by the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM). The Task force was and developed five priorities for advancing the positions of marginalized adolescent girls. Link text -
The Protocol on Gender and Development is established by the SADC
The South African Development Community SADC establishes Article 11 of The Protocol on Gender and Development concerning The Girl and Boy Child. The Article certifies that member states will ensure, among other things, the girl child's equal access to education, protection from harmful cultural attitudes, protection from discrimination, protection from economic exploitation, and equal access to resources. -
World Economic Forum Releases 2009 Gender Gap Report: Girls' Education Identified as New Development Goal
The World Economic Forum Identifies girl's education as a development goal in 2009. "Investment in girls’ education reduces female fertility rates, lowers infant and child mortality rates, lowers maternal mortality rates, increases women’s labour force participation rates and earnings and fosters educational investment
in children" (WEF 2009). Most importantly, positive economic impacts of educating girls were emphasized.
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ICC Prosecutor Investigates Post-Election Violence Crimes
The International Criminal Court (ICC) steps in and takes over Kenya's investigation of the 2007 post-election violence after it is determined that Kenya has not been taking adequate steps to investigate and prosecute crimes. Link text -
Kenya Joins the East African Common Market
The East African Common Market serves as an agreement between its 5 partner states - Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda - to facilitate the free movement of goods, services, labor, and capital between them (known as the "Four Freedoms"). This is the second Common Market put into effect since 1967, when the first East African Common Market was established. Link text -
UN Foundation Launches 'Girl Up' Campaign
The 'Girl Up' campaign was launched in 2010 by the UN foundation as an initiative aimed at teenage girls in the Global North. The campaign encourages girls in the global north to take up the cause of girls in the "third world" through advocacy, financial donations, and fundraising on their behalf.
The campaign presents an interesting relationship between girls in the global North and South, painting those in the south as in need of saving from their more developed counterparts in the North. -
LITERATURE: Angela McRobbie. The Aftermath of Feminism: Gender, Culture and Social Change
This review is useful in that it addresses post feminism as a "fourth wave" which, among other purposes, articulates that feminism is no longer necessary because equality has been achieved. This is an especially important idea in girl effect discourse because campaigns like "girl up" construct societies in the global north as post-feminist. Girls in the global north must take up the cause for those in the global south because of the post feminist notion that they have nothing left to fight for. -
LITERATURE: Beyond 'victims' and 'heroines': Constructing 'girlhood' in international development - Mary Cobbett
Cobbett identifies the problematic depiction of girls in modern development initiatives as either "victims" or "heroines". The unschooled girl is seen as the disempowered victim, while schooling for girls transforms them into heroines, and is seen as the singular way to empowerment and agency. Emphasis on education as the only form of advancement silences the voices of girls who decide to choose other options (eg, who do not WANT to go to school). -
LITERATURE: Measuring the Economic Gain in Investing in Girls: The Girl Effect Dividend by Jad Chaaban, Wendy Cunningham
In a quantitative study of 13 countries, authors examine opportunity cost associated with lack of investment in girls and the resulting economic impact within their communities, regions, and the world. A central, instrumentalist argument they seek to make is that investment in girls will not only benefit girls, but their communities at large. Cost of leaving school, exclusion form the job market, and adolescent pregnancy are all examined in this purely economic assessment. -
Women hold 64% of seats after 2013 Rwandan Parliamentary Elections
The 2013 Rwandan Paramilitary Elections marked an incredibly important moment for women throughout Rwanda and the world, as women secured 64% of seats in Rwandan Parliament. Prior to the elections, the 2003 Rwandan Constitution established a 30% quota for women parliamentary members. The setting of electoral quotas has spurned new debates surrounding the validity of this fast-track model to development and women's political participation throughout Africa. -
LITERATURE: 'The Revolution Will Be Led by a 12-year-old Girl': Girl Power and Global Biopolitics
Koffman and Gil present a critical investigation into the entity that is ‘The Girl Effect’. Koffman and Gil examine four popular narratives within the girlhood studies and development umbrella: the initial turn to girlhood and ‘girl power’ in development initiated by the launch of The Girl Effect, the girl as an entrepreneur in waiting, the address to the Northern/Western public, and finally, girls' empowerment and fertility. -
LITERATURE: BLACK GIRLS MATTER: PUSHED OUT,, OVERPOLICED AND UNDERPROTECTED by Kimberle Crenshaw
Crenshaw, Nanda, and Ocen examine the effects of the disciplinary measures, policing, and institutionalization of black girls within the educational system commonly referred to as the "school-to-pirison-pipeline". The gendered risks that students of color face are often overlooked by the general public. Crenshaw calls into attention the plight of black girls in this multi method analysis. -
LITERATURE: Girlhood and the Politics of Place edited by Claudia Mitchell and Carrie Rentschler
Mitchell and Rentschler present 18 essays detailing girlhood studies in relation to place. Place, the editors argue, not only provides a geographical location in which to locate girls but a context in which we can position their experience. The 18 essays examine various intersecting factors within girls' realities all while positioning place at the forefront of girls experience. Through its feminist research methods and practice, it is an important contribution to girlhood studies. -
LITERATURE: Charting Girlhood Studies by Claudia Mitchell
Mitchell explains ways in which girlhood scholars can chart the girlhood studies field within their own place/standpoint. Beginning with a touchstone event, Mitchell encourages scholars to track backwards, expand, and finally move forward from the moment that defined their journey into the field. A reflexive approach, mapping girlhood studies allows feminist researchers to place themselves within the field and map out, a critical way in which multiple world views are accurately accounted for. -
LITERATURE: Womanhood and Girlhood in 21st Century Kenya: Chapter 2 - Besi Brillian Muhonja
Dr. Muhonja examines the "Ubabi" (upper/middle class, urban Kenyan girl). She identifies "compromised independence" of Kenyan girls, brought on by the erasure of coming of age rituals by matriarchs meant to educate girls on their transitioning societal roles, a false understanding of girlhood by girls solely as independence from parental figures, and girls' financial dependence on families heightened by middle class Kenyan reliance on service labor. -
LITERATURE: Missed Opportunities: The High Cost of Not Educating Girls by WBG
The World Bank Group released a collection of data in their study on the economic costs of not educating girls. Possible risks included low education rates for children, economic impact on families due to lack of income, and substantial loss in national wealth.
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