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Albany Plan
At the beginning of the 7 Years War, Benjamin Franklin suggested the Albany Plan to unite the 13 colonies together and created a "Join or Die" political cartoon. He knew that alone we would be destroyed by the French, but together the colonies could be a powerful force. While the plan failed, many rising prominent leaders attended. It was the first time they had met together and as Britain increased its hold on the colonies after the 7 Years War, the idea of unity had already been introduced. -
Peace Negotiations Begin (7 Years War)
On April 3, 1760, Prussia and Great Britain begin to negotiate for the peace treaty that will end the 7 Years' War. This Great War between Britain and Prussia versus France, Spain, and Austria led to a British victory. The peace treaty that ended the war was known as the Treaty of Paris and was signed on February 10, 1763. This war was very costly to Britain and sparked frustrations between the colonists and England on whether the colonists did enough to contribute to war efforts. -
Sugar Act of 1764
The Sugar Act actually lowered the tax on sugar and molasses in hopes to reduce the amount of smuggling. It kick-started the amount of Acts passed by Great Britain that impressed the colonists (The Quartering Act, Stamp Act, Townshend Acts, and Coercive Acts). These acts unfairly raised taxes or impressed colonists in various ways. Britain viewed it as fair because the 7 Years' War directly benefited the colonists. This led to great frustration and unrest in the colonies. -
Boston Massacre
Frustration against the British had been simmering as colonists had been heavily taxed and had British soldiers living in their midst. One day a crowd started throwing snow and rocks and verbally insulting these Red Coats. When a rock hit one in the head, they opened fire, killing 5. Paul Revere created a propaganda cartoon that was highly spread, angering colonists everywhere. This event led to the colonists striking back with the Boston Tea Party, led by Samuel Adams and the Sons of Liberty. -
Intolerable/Coercive Acts
These laws enacted in 1774 were in response to the Boston Tea Party, which cost the British over $1.8 million in just tax revenue. These acts closed the Port of Boston and completely overtook the colonies' government. Any royal officials accused of a crime would also be sent to trial in England (practically ensuring their freedom). While called coercive by the British, colonists called them intolerable and it was the final straw for both sides before the Revolutionary War started. -
Shot Heard Around the World (Revolutionary War)
In the Battles of Lexington and Concord, militiamen were outnumbered and disadvantaged in every way. They were ordered to stand down and when they finally decided to, someone fired a shot. No one knows which side it came from, but it caused a battle to begin. In the end, the British were facing 1500 hidden men and their target of weapons in Concord had been removed, so they retreat to Boston. This was a significant colonist victory and starts the world's first successful rebellion for democracy. -
"Common Sense" by Thomas Paine
Thomas Paine writes a pamphlet called "Common Sense" that lays out a passionate case for American independence in vernacular. It's read by thousands, convinces many who were on the fence about independence, and even out-sells the Bible for a couple of months. Later, Paine publishes "Crisis" to encourage and boost the morale of the Continental Army through the bitter Winter of Valley Forge. It reminds them of their purpose, and shortly after it's published, the Continental Army wins a victory. -
Battle of Saratoga (Revolutionary War)
The Patriot victory at Saratoga was a big turning point in the Revolutionary War because it was the first time an entire British army surrendered. Over 5,000 British troops were captured. The victory ensured the diplomatic success of the American diplomat in Paris in securing an alliance with France. Without this alliance, America wouldn't have been able to beat the British. It was also a huge morale booster and helped the Americans make it through the war. -
Articles of Confederation
The Articles of Confederation were mainly created out of fear from previous oppressive British rule. They didn't allow a standing army or taxing authority and focused on a small federal government. These Articles were not very successful but were a good start and did do a couple of good things. They created a unifying country name (United States of America) and added the Northwest Ordinance (which organized new land, covered the process of becoming a state, and outlawed slavery in new states). -
Battle of Yorktown (Revolutionary War)
After a grueling campaign through the south, General Cornwallis retreated to Yorktown for the winter because of its access to its navy. Unaware the French Navy had already defeated them, the British were now surrounded and outnumbered. Cornwallis is forced to surrender as "the world turned upside down". Cornwallis refused to offer his sword to Washington and continued to disrespect the new country. This was significant because it ended the Revolutionary War, leading to the Treaty of Paris. -
Shay's Rebellion
Daniel Shay and a mob of farmers were angry at taxation and started destroying buildings and marching to Massachusetts.People were terrified but the federal government was too weak to do something.It took wealthy aristocrats to hire a private army to put them down.Shay's Rebellion was significant because it highlighted the flaws in the Articles of Confederation and the weakness of the federal government. This led to change and a new form of government emerging from the Constitutional Convention. -
1st President: George Washington
In April of 1789, Washington is inaugurated as president and John Adams as vice president. The people had a deep respect for Washington, as he was selected (not elected) to become the first president of the United States. Washington was known for setting many precedents for following presidents. Some of the precedents he set were giving an inaugural and farewell address and having a two-term presidency. He had to lead by example for future presidents, as he was heading into uncharted territory. -
Whiskey Rebellion
In 1791 to 1794, farmers in Pennsylvania refused to pay the excise tax that was placed on whisky. They cried, "Liberty and no excise!". Washington knew he needed to stand up to this rebellious group, so in 1794 he took the American army in. The Whiskey Rebellion was quickly put down. This was significant because it shows the strength and success of this new federal government. The government passed this test unlike earlier when it failed under the Articles of Confederation with Shay's Rebellion. -
Revolution of 1800
The Election of 1800 marked the end of the Federalist Era and shifted into the Jeffersonian Era as Thomas Jefferson was declared the winner. For the first time in world history, there was a peaceful change of power between two people of very different political ideologies. This election led to President Adams appointing midnight judges to try and conserve the federalist hold on the judicial branch as they had just lost the executive and legislative branches (which led to Marbury v. Madison). -
Marbury v. Madison
As President John Adams left office, he appointed as many federalist judges as he could. These “midnight judges” frustrated many, including new President Jefferson. When one judge, Marbury, didn’t get appointed in time, he took the case to court. Madison opposed him, arguing that the midnight judges weren't constitutional. The Supreme Court ruled in Madison’s favor in Marbury v. Madison and exercised its right to Judicial Review for the first time (the right to declare laws unconstitutional). -
Louisiana Purchase
President Jefferson was faced with a big dilemma: the constitutionality of acquiring new land. While difficult, he was able to put aside his own strict constructionist views and make a decision that he believed was best for the country. This purchase doubled the size of the country and secured access to New Orleans and the Mississippi River. Jefferson sent the Lewis & Clark Expedition to explore, build trade relationships, and find a water route to the Pacific; greatly increasing opportunity. -
The Embargo Act of 1807
This Act passed by Jefferson was in response to the war between Great Britain and France. We finally had good trading relationships with both countries so Jefferson wanted to remain neutral. When the pressure from all sides to make a different decision gets too immense, he imposed an embargo on all foreign trade. This destroys the American economy and is very unpopular among American citizens. Although it severely hurts the economy, it encourages domestic industry and helps in the long run. -
Charles Finney (Second Great Awakening)
Charles Finney’s overarching message was that people have free will and can choose God and salvation. Finney was able to change society when he converted influential businessmen, as they vowed to attend church and quit drinking. Their employees followed suit by attending a Free Presbyterian Church. His wife helped set up Sunday Schools and the Female Charitable Society. The Finneys changed society’s customs of the time but also created organizations and practices that are still in place today. -
Treaty of Ghent (War of 1812)
This treaty was significant as it ended the War of 1812. It was signed in Ghent, Belgium between Great Britain and the United States. The war is considered "status quo ante bellum" which meant that the two countries would go back to how they were before the conflict began. Communication is so slow that the Battle of New Orleans is still fought even though it occurred after the treaty had been signed. This made it appear as though this battle had been the reason the Americans won the war. -
Missouri Compromise
In the early 1800s, tensions around the controversial topic of slavery were increasing. When Missouri applied to enter the union as a slave state, it unbalanced its slave-to-free states ratio. Congress proposed the emancipation of slaves in Missouri, but the territory rejected the proposal. As a result, Southerners in the Senate used their power to withhold statehood for Maine. This led to all states North of the “36th parallel” being free states and all South being slave states. -
Corrupt Bargain/Election of 1824
The election of 1824 was monumental as a corrupt bargain took place between John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay. Andrew Jackson got most- but not the majority- of the electoral votes, so the vote went to the House of Representatives, where Henry Clay was the speaker. Adams and Clay meet privately and afterward, Clay endorses Adams and later gets appointed as secretary of state when Adams wins. This leads to infuriating Jackson's supporters and Adams loses most of the people's trust as president. -
Indian Removal Act
Jackson supported the Indian Removal Act of 1830 that got passed by Congress. It required Natives to relocate west of the Mississippi River. Jackson claimed that it was for the protection of the people and their culture. Many Americans and Natives protested. Some Natives protested violently like in the Bad Ax Massacre while others took a diplomatic approach and appealed to the Supreme Court in Cherokee Nation v Georgia and Worcester v Georgia. In the end, they were forced to the Trail of Tears. -
The Liberator: William Lloyd Garrison
William Lloyd Garrison was an avid abolitionist known for his newspaper, the Liberator. He would often denounce the Constitution and government for the hypocrisy of slavery. His newspaper had a worldwide impact during the Civil War as it was the most widely circulated anti-slavery newspaper. It impacted thousands worldwide. Garrison was also known for talking about controversial topics and founding the American Anti-Slavery Society. He was one of the greatest abolitionist leaders of the time. -
South Carolina Nullification Crisis
South Carolina deeply angered Jefferson by claiming they could nullify federal laws in their own state because they felt that they weren’t fair. This "Ordinance of Nullification" nullified the Tariff of Abominations. Even though Congress had passed the tariff, South Carolina argued that because it was within their borders they could veto it. The South was seeing if they could get away with disobeying this order so when the day came when slavery would be abolished, they would have a way out. -
Taney Court
Roger Taney Court was known for reversing nationalist and property rights that Marshall Court had established. Many of his rulings supported Jackson’s policies about free enterprise and states’ rights. Inspired by Taney Court and Jackson, many states had their own constitutional revolution. States made themselves more diplomatic by adjusting representation based on population and allowing all white men to vote. Voters got more power in voting for positions rather than having them elected. -
Death of William Henry Harrison
William Henry Harrison, the ninth U.S. president, was the first American president to die in office on April 3, 1841. He holds the record for the shortest presidential term, one month, and was succeeded by Vice President John Tyler. President Tyler left his mark on the United States by being the president responsible for the annexation of Texas (which led to the Mexican-American War under President Polk). He's also the first president to have his veto over legislation overridden by Congress. -
Annexation of Texas
When Texas decided to rebel against Mexico and become its own country, they went to war.US citizens wanted to help support them because so many Americans lived there.The government came up with a compromise: in order to receive aid from the United States, the Republic of Texas had to become a state.They voted on the proposition and despite the tight margin, joined the US.This led to Mexico stepping down militarily and Texas becoming the 28th state, setting the scene for the Mexican-American War. -
Gold Discovered in California (Gold Rush)
The discovery of gold in California led to thousands of people flocking there to find their fortune- but caused more problems than it solved. Hunting for gold was rarely successful, leading to just as many people leaving San Francisco as were coming in the mid-1850s. In response to the mining failures, many men moved on to wheat farming. Thousands of Natives were killed, sexually assaulted, or sold into slavery for their land, causing tension that would eventually lead to the Indian Wars. -
End of Free Soil Party
Those that supported the free soil party believed that slavery was a threat to republicanism and a freeholder society. They opposed slavery expansion into the west.These arguments won support from aspiring white farmers. Frederick Douglass, a well-known abolitionist, endorsed the party.He believed that the Free Soil Party could have more of a political impact than the abolitionists could. Eventually, the Free Soil Party merged with the Republican Party, which led the nation during the Civil War. -
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican-American War in 1848. The war was being fought over Texas, which was disputed land. America counted Texas as a state but Mexico also claimed it as its own. The United States was much stronger militarily and President Polk flooded Texas with troops. They pushed Mexico so far south that they were able to capture Mexico City. As the treaty was signed and the war ended, the US gained land: California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Nevada, and Colorado. -
Seneca Falls Convention
The Seneca Falls Convention was a huge convention in New York for two days, filled with over three hundred people to address the social and religious rights of women. Elizabeth Cady Stanton headed the drafting of The Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions, a list of demands and grievances for women to have their Constitutionally-given equal rights as American citizens. This convention kickstarted the movement for women's suffrage in America. This eventually led to the 19th Amendment. -
The Compromise of 1850
This Compromise was able to preserve national unity with five major parts. The first was the Fugitive Slave Act which benefited the Southerners by strengthening the federal help given to catch runaway slaves. The next three benefited the North: California was established as a free state and the trading of slaves was abolished in Washington DC. The boundary dispute between New Mexico and Texas was resolved. Finally, the remaining Mexican lands were organized and popular sovereignty was invoked. -
Fugitive Slave Act of 1850
This act was a part of the Compromise of 1850 and required slaves to be returned to their masters, even if they are in a free state. This led to conflict because any free Black person could be accused of being a runaway slave. It also increased the polarization of those for and against slavery. Some who refused to obey the act formed the Underground Railroad, a system of people who helped slaves escape. All of these things served as a catalyst for events that would lead to the Civil War. -
Publication of Uncle Tom's Cabin
Harriett Beecher Stowe wrote one of the most influential books of the time: Uncle Tom's Cabin. The main character was a slave portrayed with independent thoughts and emotions- something that wasn't common at the time. It was a smashing hit in the North but banned in the South. This book impacted how people thought of slavery and ignited some sympathy for slaves in the South. Abraham Lincoln himself, when he met her, said, "Oh you're the lady who wrote a book who led this great Civil War." -
Rockefeller's Career begins
At 16 years old, John D. Rockefeller, a genius and ruthless businessman, began his career as an office bookkeeper. He later founded the Standard Oil company, which grew to become the world's largest oil company. He was the first American billionaire and the world's richest man. Often attacked for his careless attitude towards his employees, he becomes very hated for his business practices and his oil monopoly and trusts. These practices left a dirty name in his great American legacy. -
Pottawatomie Massacre (John Browne)
Minister John Browne shows up with his followers in Kansas. They go to five cabins of those who are pro-slavery and violently murder them with broad swords. The families didn't even own slaves, just held pro-slavery beliefs. Browne and his followers go into hiding afterward. This violent act causes the pro-slavery side to win the vote, pass pro-slavery legislation, and get rid of abolition in positions of power. It also leads to Bleeding Kansas and the conflict at Harper's Terry. -
Dred Scott Case
Dred Scott v Stanford involved Scott, a slave, who moved with his owner into Wisconsin, a free state. He argued that because slavery was abolished there, he was free. This would mean that relocating to a free state would dissolve the bonds of slavery. The Supreme Court disagreed and ruled in favor of Scott's owner because he was a slave and had no rights. Abolitionists supported Scott and argued that with this ruling there was no such thing as a free state, creating deeper division in the US. -
Harpers Ferry (John Brown)
John Brown and his followers show up in Harper's Ferry where there's a large military armory. They plan to steal the guns, kill the plantation masters (freeing and arming the slaves) and continue throughout the South. While they successfully raid the armory, they raise the alarm and are stopped from leaving. Robert E. Lee takes them captive and they are tried for treason. Before John Brown is hung, he predicts the Civil War. When he died, Northern church bells ring, deeply offending Southerners. -
1860 Election
Abraham Lincoln, a rising Whig star, and Stephen Douglas, a Democrat, were both after president in 1860. The North rallied around Lincoln while the South is worried about his views on slavery and their economic system. The Democrats were very divided (pro-slavery vs abolitionist). Lincoln challenges Douglas to a debate, so when he declines he follows wherever he campaigns and speaks afterward. Lincoln wins the election, causing South Carolina to succeed and the other Southern states follow suit. -
Fort Sumter
The attack on Fort Sumter significantly impacted American history because it was the official start of the Civil War, the deadliest in American history. President Lincoln sent a convoy with food to American bases in the South because they were stuck without food. The South was suspicious and attacked the troops, causing the start of the war. Richmond, Virginia was chosen to be the Confederates' capitol and was only 80 miles from Washington D.C. making both valuable targets during the Civil War. -
Homestead Act of 1862
The Homestead Act was signed by Abraham Lincoln to develop a productive, taxable west side of the United States, along with boosting the economy. The government promised 160 acres of land to anyone on these three terms: farm the land for 5 years, live on the land, and improve the land in some way. Thousands of people took the government up on this offer, causing millions to migrate west. This mass migration led to the railroad being necessary and conflict with Native Americans was inevitable. -
Battle of Antietam
The Battle of Antietam, the deadliest one-day battle in the US, was the most influential battle of the Civil War. While this battle was a tactical draw, Lincoln spun it as a victory. He used it as an opportunity to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed all slaves that are in rebellious states. European nations were more willing to work with the Union and refused to work with the Confederacy because they were pro-slavery. This battle was an essential morale boost for the Union. -
Emancipation Proclamation
Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation after the victory at Antietam. It outlawed slavery in states that weren’t a part of the Union by 1863. Since the majority of European nations had already outlawed slavery, they would no longer lend money to or, more important, buy cotton from the Confederates. By switching the focus of the war from the issue of Confederate independence to slavery vs. freedom, even though it didn’t immediately free slaves, it gave the Union the upper hand yet again. -
Ten Percent Plan
Lincoln approached Reconstruction by offering a generous plan to the South. It offered amnesty to Confederates and implemented the 10% Plan. This meant that each rebellious state could rejoin the country as long as 10% of its voters took a pledge of loyalty and the state ratified the 13th Amendment (abolishing slavery). Congress didn’t support this and created a stricter plan instead: the Wade-Davis Bill. Lincoln vetoed, but intended to compromise with Congress to come up with a better solution. -
Grant Appointed as General
Grant’s appointment to general in chief changed the Civil War for the Union.They had gone through many ineffective generals, who had no chance against the Confederacy’s General Lee. Grant would ruthlessly obey Lincoln's military advice and knew how to use their advantage of industrial technology and target the Confederacy’s weakness of infrastructure. He focused on ending the war swiftly, despite high casualties. Having Grant as General allowed the Union to be led by a strong, aggressive leader. -
Surrender at Appomattox
In the final Virginia Campaign, Lee retreated until they got to their capital, Richmond, but were surrounded and running out of supplies. The Union burns the capital and realizes that Lee is heading to Appomattox, where they have a large storehouse. Grant splits his army, having one march ahead and the other provoking a fight. Lee is forced to surrender at Appomattox to Grant. This significant event marks the end of the Civil War, bringing freedom to slaves in the South and reuniting the US. -
Introduction of Sharecropping
Sharecropping emerged because it was a great fit for cotton. It could be grown efficiently on small farms and farmers couldn’t afford to pay wages. Instead, they would offer a share of the crop and the workers would pay their rent in shares of the harvest. This was a better option for many freedmen. While the system sounds appealing, many freedmen got stuck in debt as cotton prices dropped. This resulted in the Southern economy becoming stagnant and poverty-filled, hurting the nation's economy. -
President Johnson Impeachment
Johnson was impeached after a scandal with his suspension of Secretary of War Edwin Stanton and attempted replacement of Union general Ulysses Grant. The charges were mostly related to his infringement of Congress's power. In the end, he was just one vote short of the ⅔ majority needed to convict him. Many felt that this would set too dangerous a precedent to remove someone mainly because of differing political opinions, so while he remained president, he was powerless for the rest of his term. -
14th Ammendment
The Fourteenth Amendment was ratified in July 1868 and strove to give civil rights to black citizens and fight against discrimination. It declared that all naturalized or native-born people were citizens of the United States, including African-Americans. It also forbids states from abridging citizens rights. This made citizenship a federal policy rather than a state one (which was helpful as immigration was booming). This amendment was a big demonstration of federal power over state supremacy. -
President Grant's Peace Policy
Grant believed the best way to help the Natives was to educate their children on Christianity and white ways. They forced parents to send their children across the country to off-reservation schools. Students were stripped of their identity and harshly punished until they learned how to behave. The unrealistic system was flawed; boys were taught how to farm, but reservation soil wasn’t farmable. This policy left a lasting impact as any hope for the tribes’ future generation was destroyed. -
Founding of Women’s Christian Temperance Union
This organization was founded by Frances Willard in 1870. Many Christian women at the time felt that alcohol was the root of all social problems (including neglect, abuse, unemployment, homelessness, and death). Since women said alcohol affected their children, and their homes, they took matters into their own hands. They formed organizations such as this one and the Anti-Saloon League and educated children on the dangers of alcohol. This led to prohibition, where alcohol was outlawed in the US. -
15th Amendment
Republicans recognized in the Election of 1868 that African Americans needed the right to vote. As a response, they forced the 15th Amendment through Congress, causing them to lose power. The amendment outlawed states from denying any citizen from voting on the base of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude". This was actually very unpopular in the north, giving the Democratic party Northern support and power. This amendment had a deep impact, as it eliminated race-based voting rights. -
First National Park (Yellowstone)
The government set aside 2 million acres of land in Wyoming for Yellowstone to be created as the first of many national parks. The railroad took advantage of this and started advertising rides to Yellowstone and the luxury hotel that they operated at the park. This made it difficult for Natives who used to hunt or live in Yellowstone and the military was brought in to force them out. Rather than settling in the “empty” west, Americans were unsettling the Natives which led to the Indian Wars. -
Battle of Little Big Horn
The Battle of Little Big Horn was a significant Native American victory, although short-lived. General Custer had his troops attack a large group of Native Americans (consisting of the Sioux, Arapaho, and Cheyenne tribes) because they refused to move to a reservation. Custer’s troops were destroyed. This was the last Native victory against the US army. Bitter winters led to starvation and in September 1866, the last rebel Native American group surrendered. White Americans had conquered the west. -
Compromise of 1877
In the election of 1877, Democrat candidate Tilden was leading the popular vote on election night. Republicans cited evidence of voter fraud and gave the votes to Hayes (their candidate) while Democrats gave the votes to Tilden. An electoral commission committee was put together for this unprecedented event, and Hayes won 8 to 7. Democrats were outraged, so Hayes promised to support the South and withdrew the remaining soldiers in the South, ending Reconstruction and Republican influence. -
Great Railroad Strike of 1877
Thousands of railroad workers who longed for reform in their industry chose to go on strike, taking to the streets. When authorities were sent in to break the strike, violence, and destruction ensued. By the end of the year, the 1877 strike resulted in 50 deaths, almost a thousand jailed, and $40 million dollars of property was destroyed. These strikes were ineffective, especially compared to other groups like the Greenbackers who were able to enact actual change in the government's policies. -
Assassination of President Garfield
The popular spoils system allowed a new president to appoint his biggest supporters to positions in the government. Administrations soon realized this was not an effective way to run the government, but no one wanted to be the one to change it. Finally, when President Garfield was assassinated because his murderer Charles Guiteau felt he was cheated out of a government job, the Pendleton Act was passed. This requires most federal job seekers to pass a civil service exam and still exists today. -
Dissolve of Greenback Party
Frustrated farmers formed a political party called the Greenback-Labor Party to advocate for the preservation of voting rights and improved working conditions. They supported producerism (getting rid of the supervisors who made money off of those who were working) and increasing the amount of money put into circulation. Greenbackers were very influential and had over a million people supporting their cause, leading to actual change and setting the stage for future large business regulations. -
Haymarket Affair & the Knights of Labor
Frustrated with working conditions, workers of all occupations took part in unions such as the Knights of Labor to protest. At its peak, over 750,000 people were members- and tragedy struck at the Haymarket Affair. As members of the union attended a strike, anarchists also in attendance planted a bomb that killed a policeman, and in the chaos that ensued, seven police and four workers. Employers used this as motivation to crack down on rebellious groups and ended many American labor unions. -
How the Other Half Lives Publication
As a photographer and author, Jacob Riis advertised the horrors of tenement house apartments in his book How the Other Half Lives. The photographs and stories published by researcher Helen Campbell and Riis inspired Teddy Roosevelt himself to request a tour of the living conditions in tenements, helping him understand the diseases that were being spread from the poor environment they lived in. Without the journalists making stories personal for readers, these changes would not have happened. -
Coxey's Army
Jacob Coxey, a radical businessman, gathered a group of unemployed men to make up Coxey’s Army. Some American towns would support and aid them (populist) but others would violently drive them away. Once they reached the capitol, the police arrested them for trespassing and the march was broken up. Rather than listening to the people, President Cleveland ignored them. This created frustration among the Americans with President Cleveland, a surge in Republican votes, and a loss of Populist power. -
Tremont Street Subway Opens
Technology such as the Tremont Street Subway, which opened to the public in Boston, allowed the focus of cities to evolve from commerce and finance to industry. Steam-driven cable cars, electric trolleys, the elevated railroad, and underground subway helped transform public transportation so citizens in these large cities could travel to work. These changes had an immeasurable impact on the future of our nation that so heavily relies on these urban centers packed with industry. -
De Lome Letter
This Spanish letter, intercepted by DC, called McKinley a "would-be politician" and admitted Spain didn't intend to honor its deal with America for humanitarian relief for Cubans. This enraged Americans when it was published in Hearst's NY newspaper (who had already been covering the Spanish horrors against Cuban rebels). The last straw was the USS Maine's explosion, killing 260 American seamen. When negotiations were rejected, the war between America and Spain —with Cuba in the middle— began. -
AFL Reaches 1 Million Members
Samuel Gompers headed the creation of the American Federation of Labor. The AFL lobbied for safer working conditions, shorter hours, higher wages, and employee benefits. Members concentrated on organizing skilled labor but one of their major downsides was refusing to include African-Americans or women. 1900 marked the year that the AFL reached a million members. The AFL impacted the United States because it demonstrated the values and hope that working Americans had for a better future. -
Annexation of the Philippines
Heated debates about whether the Philippines could rule themselves led to political conflict and the debate over the Constitutionality of ruling a conquered nation. Annexation was difficult and led to conflict and the deaths of thousands of American and Fillopino soldiers in conflict left a lasting impact on the world. America for the first time seized land and didn’t intend to make them states. With Hawaii and America’s new Spanish possessions, the United States had built up an overseas empire. -
The Jungle Published
Upton Sinclair, the author of The Jungle, provoked public outrage when people read about the horrifying sanitation issues in meat packaging plants in his new book. It was common in packaging plants like these to leave animal and human limbs in the meat. Teddy Roosevelt himself was horrified. This led to national change with the creation of the Federal Food and Drug Administration and the Pure Food and Drug Act. This just shows how one event can have a national and lasting impact on the country. -
National Child Labor Committee
Reformers created this committee, hoping to improve working conditions for children. They hired Lewis Hine, a talented reformist photographer to capture images of children working in brutal conditions, especially in mines and mills. Theodore Roosevelt was impressed by this committee in 1901 and sponsored a White House Conference on Dependent Children. This brought national attention to the issue and with this momentum in 1912, the Children's Bureau was created in the U.S. Department of Labor. -
White House Conference on Dependent Children
Reformers created the National Child Labor Committee hoping to improve working conditions for kids. They hired Lewis Hine, a talented reformist photographer to capture images of children working in brutal conditions, especially in mines and mills. Teddy Roosevelt was impressed by this committee and sponsored a White House Conference on Dependent Children. This brought national attention to the issue and with this momentum in 1912, the Children's Bureau was created in the US Department of Labor. -
Triangle Shirtwaist Fire
This preventable tragedy united people of all types who were outraged that not only were the 146 deaths of immigrant girls preventable, but these same girls had protested for better working conditions just a year before and were shut down. In response, New York appointed 56 new laws that dealt with fire and hazardous working conditions for women and children. This labor code was the most advanced of the time and had a big impact on the progressive era and future national legislation. -
17th Amendment Ratified
The 17th Amendment allows senators to be chosen by popular vote and was a result of elite and middle-class citizens feeling more comfortable giving power to voters because of the falling minority voting numbers. This was because northern states implemented literacy tests and restrictions on immigrants voting, making it impossible for small parties to get their candidates on the ballot. As a result, the number of minority voters such as immigrants, African Americans, and poor citizens plunged. -
President Wilson Re-elected
President Wilson ran for re-election on the platform of peace and promised to help the United States stay out of war. This neutrality allowed the country to continue trading with all of the nations involved in the war, rather than just its allies, helping the economy. This isolationist policy, although popular, didn't last long. Events such as the Zimmerman Note, the sinking of the Lusitania, and German submarine warfare contradict this isolationist policy and pushed America to join World War I. -
Creation of War Industries Board
As America joined World War I, the War Industries Board was created and given great power to regulate and control American businesses. It was allowed to manipulate what was being produced, set quotas of products, determine minimum and maximum prices for goods, and oversaw the distrubution of raw materials. This was not the capitalist economy that America is proud of and ironically has hints of communism as the government gains great control over private enterprise. America is now in total war. -
Armistice Day
The Allied Powers desperately needed manpower. Against the fresh one million new American soldiers, the weary, abandoned Germans didn’t stand a chance. Americans also sent grain, weapons, and goods to Europe, aiding the Allied Powers. America stood united in the war effort and businesses were able to invest, aiding the cause. Armistice Day was declared on November 11th, after a retreat had been called in September. This event, which we still celebrate today, marked the end of World War I. -
Treaty of Versailles goes into Effect
European Powers didn't like Wilson's 14 Points which focused on preventuring future war, adjusting boarders, and creating a League of Nations (which the US never joined). One of the major flaws they found with it was there was no blame assigned in his 14 Points. The Treaty of Versailles punished Germany and was the most significant treaty of WWI. While the goal was to prevent another World War, the restrictions caused poverty and desperation, turning the Germans to Hitler, leading to WWII. -
Louis Armstrong & King Oliver
1923 marked the year when Armstrong became a jazz phenomenon by creating records with King Oliver. As part of the Harlem Renaissance, this included black culture from music, fashion, and literature that influenced all American culture. While ending with the Great Depression, it still highlighted the pride and accomplishments of African Americans and inspired many to be successful. This pride helped create a shared sense of community and form the foundation for the Civil Rights Movement. -
David Stephenson Convicted
When Klan leader Stephenson was charged with murder and rape of his assistant in 1925, KKK membership dropped through the floor. Before, the KKK had been very popular with millions of white middle-class families and was involved with hundreds of acts of violence against African Americans. The anxiety that came from WWI along with already-existing racism led to people needing to feel united against a common enemy: anyone who wasn’t a white Protestant was on the outside and potentially in danger. -
Execution of Sacco & Vanzetti
Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, although most likely innocent, were two Italian anarchists arrested for the murder of two men and a robbery that occurred nearby their shop. This led to a huge protest that they were arrested on political and racial bases rather than evidence. They were sentenced to death and executed on Aug. 23, 1927 to the dismay of many Americans. This demonstrated the danger of the country's willingness to violate the freedom of speech of those with different opinions. -
Roosevelt Elected as Governor
As governor, FDR was able to see problems from the city up to the federal level. This led straight into his election as president, where he supported private enterprise with the Square Deal, Standard Oil Decision, and Hepburn Act. His land conservation acts were especially progressive and included the Newlands Reclamation Act, the creation of the US Forest Service, and three national parks. Roosevelt’s progressive politics left a lasting legacy for his predecessor Taft to try and live up to. -
Bonus Army Conflict
During the Depression workers were facing layoffs and wage cuts, tragically including WWI veterans, who had been promised money in thanks for their service in 1945. Desperate for funds now, they banded together to create the Bonus Army and camped in front of the White House. After a few months, Hoover sent the army after these desperate veterans, forcefully evicting them. Many Americans hated Hoover for his response to this crisis and just wanted help from the government during this trying time. -
The Emergency Banking Act
The Emergency Banking Act kicked off the New Deal, which gave Americans something they’d been yearning for a long time: hope after a Great Depression. The focus on funding public works, industry, and defense employed millions and created a template to govern America used for the remainder of the century. This deal without a question transformed the political landscape for years to come with millions of voters switching to vote liberal, but also greatly increasing the power of the government. -
Social Security
When this act was passed, it created pensions for the elderly, payments to the widowed or disabled, and compensation for the unemployed. The creation of Social Security was the largest role that the federal government had in the welfare of its citizens. This focus on welfare compared to the first New Deal, along with the other legislation of the Second New Deal became known as New Deal Liberalism. Differing opinions on how the government should be involved in everyday life still exist today. -
Court Packing Scandal
FDR was extremely frustrated when the SCOTUS struck down many of his New Deal legislation due to constitutionality so he tried to add 6 new judges, as some of his biggest reform laws were supposed to go before them. After a long debate, Congress saw FDR was packing the court and shut him down for trying to press his own political advantage. If allowed, this would set an extremely dangerous precedent. In the end, the threats were enough: the judges ruled in favor of Roosevelt's new legislation. -
Hitler Invades Poland
In March 1838, Nazi Germany annexed Austria, a violation of the Treaty of Versailles, but were welcomed in by the struggling Austrian people. Just a year later, Germany invades Czechoslovakia, the first aggressive step that suggested a war in Europe would come soon. Germany promised Russia half of Poland in August 1939 while making a non-aggression pact with Russia and in 1939 invades Poland. Hitler had pushed Churchill too far, starting a war with France and Britain and the beginning of WWII. -
Operation Barbarossa
In 1933, Hitler was elected chancellor of Germany and at this point was in direct control of the country. In 1941, Hitler ignored the German-Russian non-aggression Act that they had signed in August of 1939, which stated neither country would attack the other. Hitler halted the London Blitz bombings and instead launched an attack against Russia. In doing this, he made an enemy of Stalin's Soviet Union. This was a turning point and led to Russia joining the Allied Powers and an eventual victory. -
Attack on Pearl Harbor
This day of infamy was the last straw for the United States in its decision to stay out of WW2. When the US demanded Japan withdraw from China and Indochina because of economic reasons, Japan believed attacking the US would be an easy win and launched an attack on Pearl Harbor. While the attack was short, thousands of soldiers and civilians were killed or wounded. While Japan delivered a big blow, they woke the Sleeping Giant- America was ready to fight in WWII- which is exactly what they did. -
D-Day
The long-awaited invasion of France was accomplished by an armada crossing the English Channel. Under Eisenhower, Allied troops were successful, but suffered great casualties. Their invasion allowed the Allies to engage in a two-front war. Germany’s resources were spread thin in order to defend itself on two sides, leading to the loss of France and Belgium. Germany still put up a good fight, but exhausted by war and powerless after Hitler’s suicide, Germany finally surrendered on May 7th, 1945. -
Servicemen’s Readjustment Act (GI Bill)
As a thank you to its WWII veterans, the US government passed the G.I. Bill, paying for veterans’ tuition for college or trade school. Before, access to higher education would’ve been out of reach, but now over half of those going to college were veterans. This prompted a rise in the middle class across the nation as more education led to higher-paying jobs. The G.I. Bill also lowered the interest rate on property loans, so more veterans and their families could afford to become homeowners. -
Iran Dispute
Iran was the site of the first Cold War dispute. Until 1941, British and Soviet troops had occupied Iran, but when the war ended Britain left, leaving the Soviets hoping to force their way to some of Iran's oil. Unwilling to let communism spread even further was known as the Truman Doctrine and focused on containing communism and preventing the domino effect of Soviet control in foreign nations. The Iran dispute demonstrated that America wasn't willing to let the USSR bully other countries. -
Marshall Plan
Secretary of State George C. Marshall's plan helped promote economic stability and rebuilding. It was very successful and a major part of Western Europe's recovery from the devastation of WWII. We were able to afford this because of our flourishing economy. We even offered the money to the USSR and Eastern Europe, but while these countries would've loved to accept the help, the USSR believed this would demonstrate their failure, so communist-controlled countries were not allowed to accept. -
Brown v Board of Education
Court case Plessy v Ferguson determined that schools could be separate if they were equal (Jim Crow Laws). But colored schools were underfunded, out of date, and significantly disadvantaged. First grader Linda Brown had to walk past many white schools every day and lobbied for schools to be integrated. Thurgood Marshall, an excellent lawyer, took the case and won. He later became a SCOTUS Judge and a significant figure. This case was a huge victory but also led to lots of violent pushback. -
National Interstate and Defense Highways Act
The National Interstate and Defense Highways Act was the largest public works project the United States has ever seen and interconnected the country. It created the interstate and highway system that we have today. This made suburbs and cities accessible to anyone with a car, which with companies such as Ford, was the majority of Americans, and changed the layout of the country. It connected larger cities to the country and promoted industries based on vacations, gas, entertainment, and more. -
National Defense Education Act
When the Soviets launched the first ever satellite Sputnik in 1957 the US raced to compete with it. Not wanting to be outdone the NDEA was passed, giving millions of dollars to universities to invest in research centers. Inspired by this technological push, IBM and Sperry Rand worked with integrated circuits, kickstarting the computer revolution. This competitive drive to stay ahead of the Soviet Union prompted support from many aspects of the American economy and government during the Cold War. -
Ruby Bridges' 1st Day
In 1960, six-year-old Ruby Bridges was the first black student to attend an all-white elementary school in the South. The lack of a deadline in Brown v Board of Education meant that even though it was legal for colored students to attend all-white schools, nothing changed. The cultural change was even harder, as mobs of white protesters would surround the school, trying to harm her, despite Ruby's federal marshall escort. Although a victory, it showed how deep racism still was in America. -
Freedom Riders
In the summer of 1962, over 1,000 students (of all colors) volunteered to take rides throughout the South to test out new segregation laws in bus and railway stations. Several buses were viciously attacked and even bombed by mobs of angry, white racists. Notorious "Bull" Connor, Commissioner of Public Safety in Birmingham, knew the mob was going to attack the bus and gave instructions to wait fifteen minutes, where students were horrifically attacked, bringing national attention to the issue. -
16th Street Baptist Church Bombing
The tragedy of the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing in Birmingham, Alabama left an enormous hole in the black community. This church was often a popular meeting spot for Civil Rights meetings and supposedly was supposed to be empty at the time of the bombing, but a group of kids was there, resulting in the deaths of four Black girls. This sparked riots that resulted in two more Black deaths. The Black community's patience ended when their children had become victims of this violent racism. -
Voting Rights Act of 1965
Both the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 were significant wins for the Black community. The CRA focused on discontinuing Jim Crow laws, especially in the Southern States, ending “separate but equal”. The VRA focused on providing access for Black Americans to vote. This legislation banned poll taxes, literacy tests, and intimidation techniques. These were done to encourage Black citizens to vote. The sacrifices of so many were finally being rewarded with freedom. -
Mỹ Lai Massacre
As the war dragged through the '60s, American soldiers killed almost three million Viatnemese by Rolling Thunder. We bombed Vietnam more than we did in all of Europe in WWII. The war and draft were unpopular and the My Lai Massacre didn't help matters when an entire village of Vietnamese civilians was killed by American soldiers and then attempted to be covered up. Without this war, Johnson could've been one of the Democrats' favorite presidents, but the lower class felt targeted during the war. -
Watergate Scandal
On the night of June 17, 1972, five men broke into the Watergate complex at the DNC headquarters to spy on their political enemies. When their burglary was tried to be covered up, it spiraled into a public case and trial against them and President Nixon. Nixon's involvement was unclear and led to his resignation on August 8, 1974. Although Nixon had a successful start to his presidency, this scandal by far overshadowed his accomplishments and led to a nationwide distrust of the government. -
Ford Pardons Nixon
At the beginning of Ford's presidency, he was conservative but willing to compromise. Although a great person, he was inexperienced about the presidency and was unable to counter the growing stagflation in America. One of his most unpopular decisions was when he pardoned his predecessor, Nixon, with the Watergate scandal. The people viewed this as a double standard of the law for those in power. Ford barely scraped by in the next election to get the Republican's vote, but Carter beats him. -
Camp David Accords
This meeting was put together by President Carter to try and attain peace in the middle east between Israel and Egypt. His presidency had been marked by a declining economy and stagflation, a combination of stagnation and inflation. So when Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem agreed to sign after twelve days full of secret and difficult negotiation, Ford rejoiced. An agreement was made and set the stage for a later peace treaty between the two countries in 1979. -
Reagan Assassination Attempt
Mentally insane John Hinckley Jr. attempted to assassinate President Regan after he gave a speech at the Hilton Hotel in DC. Regan was shot in his left side, just an inch away from his heart. At the time, Reagan was trying to pass big budget cuts in Congress but wasn't sure if they were able to get through. With this attempt on his life, he became even more endeared to the American public and even politicians in DC. This allowed for his budget cuts to be approved and approval ratings to soar. -
Iran-Contra Affair
This international scandal left the people upset with Reagan, a president whom they had trusted, and gave them flashbacks to the Watergate scandal and government distrust. Lieutenant General Oliver North testified that he acted on Reagan's behalf but without his knowledge and John Poindexter testified that he didn't inform the president about the shady money transfer with the arms to the Contra. Despite his public apology and innocence, Regan took a hit but ultimately the people still loved him. -
Reagan's Last Day
Reagan had served the country as president for two terms and it finally came to a close on January 20, 1989. One of his greatest accomplishments was ending the Cold War by increasing America's military spending until they outlasted the USSR. As the USSR went bankrupt and struggled, riots began and the government was overthrown. Reagan was the oldest president in office for the time and left a strong political legacy as well as being overall beloved by the American people, an impressive feat. -
START II Treaty
Signed during Bush's presidency, the Strategic Arms Reduction (bilateral) Treaty II was made between America and Russia in 1993. It was created to reduce the amount of strategic delivery vehicles, such as ballistic missiles and heavy bombers. It also limited the number of warheads deployed on them and required all states to eliminate ICBMs by the end of the phase. The first START treaty was passed in 1991, and both were significant wins for nuclear safety and diplomacy between the two countries. -
NASA Pathfinder lands on Mars
Launched in December of 1976, NASA's rover the Pathfinder made it to Mars on Independence Day, 1977. This was very significant in space exploration as it was the first rover to operate outside of the moon-earth system. The rover was named "Sojourner" and the lander was called "Carl Sagan Memorial Station". The Pathfinder successfully completed its mission of photographing the surface of Mars, studying the rock compositions, and collecting information about the wind, soil, and atmosphere. -
9/11
One of the most tragic and memorable days in American history was September 11, 2001, when four planes were hijacked by Islamist terrorists. One was flown into the Pentagon and two into the Twin Towers- the World Trade Center. One attack was unsuccessful and taken back over by the heroic passengers, but sadly crashed into a Pennsylvania field, killing all occupants. 9/11 led to the deaths of 2,977 victims, uniting the country in the war against terrorism in the Middle East and Al-Qaeda.