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More intelligent and successful human species. The Homo sapiens have adapted skillfully to the natural environment. They enabled individuals to organize more efficient methods and to communicate and to cooperate.
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The Neolithic Era, also called “new stone age”, refined tool techniques. Agriculture was developed in Neolithic era which lead to population explosion.
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The peoples of Mesoamerica discovered the agricultural potential of maize. The maize led to staple food of the region. They domesticated turkeys and dogs. Mesoamericans did not use wheeled vehicles.
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Mesopotamia was valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. It was throughout the Greek Septuagint(250 BC). After 6000 B.C.E small irrigation began in Mesopotamia.
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The metalworkers of Mesopotamia had discovered that alloying copper with tin led to a stronger implement at about 4000 B.C.E. Experiments with copper metallurgy led to the invention of bronze. Bronze had an impact on military affairs and agriculture by the new bronze tools.
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Sumer was the first urban civilization of Mesopotamia. The Sumerians inhabited the land in the sixth millennium B.C.E. The Sumerians were dominant people of Mesopotamia.
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After 3100 B.C.E. Egyptian rulers forged all the territory between Nile delta and the river’s first cataract into a unified kingdom. Menes is suggested to be the person to unify Egypt. Menes founded the city of Memphis which became the political center of ancient Egypt.
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Some craftsmen developed techniques based on wheeled vehicles and sailing ships. These transportational techniques facilitated long-distance trade. The wheels abled the Sumerians to transport to neighboring lands. After centuries wheels became a common use throughout Mesopotamia and beyond.
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The early Pharaohs organized at least five campaigns to Nubia between 3100 and 2600 B.C.E. The Pharaonic force destroyed the Nubian kingdom which made the Egyptian dominating lower Nubia. Then the north forced Nubian leaders to concentrate their efforts further to the south in upper Nubia. By 2500 B.C.E. Egyptians established the Kingdom of Kush. Kush was a formidable and wealthy state that dominated the upper parts of the Nile.
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The Indus river made agriculture possible in northern India. The agricultural surplus of Indus valley fed Harappa. Harappa had investment of human labor and other resources. The wealth of Harappa encouraged the formation of social distinctions. The rich and poor lived in very different style.
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A warrior named Sargon, organized an army and started to conquer the Sumerian city-states. He placed the cities under his governors and administrators. As he conquered more and more cities, no single city-state were able to withstand his forces.
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Bronze metallurgy enabled the Shang rulers to displace the Xia dynasty. Bronze was used in Shang dynasty to make fittings for their horse-drawn chariots. The Shang rulers also relied on a large corps of political allies and did not rule a highly centralized state.
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Using graphic symbols the Sumerians developed a flexible system. The Cuneiform were used by impressing symbols on clay and hardening them with the sun light. The cuneiform writing continued for more than three thousand years.
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People who spoke Bantu language were the most influential people of Sub Saharan Africa. They slowly spread to south into the west African forest and after 2000 B.C.E. They expanded to the south to the Congo River and east to the Great Lakes. Their migration led their languages differentiate into more than five hundred distinct but related tongues.
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Oracle bones were used by fortune-tellers in ancient China. They prepared broad bones and inscribed a question on the bone. Then they would fire the bone which developed networks of splits and cracks. The fortune teller studied the bones and recorded the answers.
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The Hebrews were pastoral nomads. The Hebrew patriarch Abraham continued to recognize many of the deities, values, and customs common to Mesopotamian peoples. The Hebrews participated fully in the larger society of Mesopotamia.
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Hammurabi’s laws established high standards of behavior and stern punishments for violators. Death penalties were also prescribed. The code also relied on the principle of lex talionis(law of retaliation).
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The later conquerors of Mesopotamia were the Babylonian Hammurabi (reigned 1792-1750 B.C.E). They relied on centralized bureaucratic rule and regular taxation. Also Hammurabi instituted more regular taxes collected by their officials.
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Bronze metallurgy enabled the Shang rulers to displace the Xia dynasty. Bronze was used in Shang dynasty to make fittings for their horse-drawn chariots. The Shang rulers also relied on a large corps of political allies and did not rule a highly centralized state.
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The early Aryans depended on heavy pastoral economy. Horses facilitated transportation and cattle became the principal measure of wealth.
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Caste identities developed as the Aryans established settlements throughout India. Along with the settlement social complexity grew and prompted people to refine social distinctions. The Aryans used the term varna which referred to the major social classes. They had four main varnas: brahmins, kshatriyas, vaishyas, shudras, and untouchables.
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The Phoenicians occupied a narrow coastal plain between the Mediterranean Sea and the Lebanon Mountains. They influenced societies throughout Mediterranean by their maritime trade and communication networks. Also the Phoenicians devised an early alphabetic script.
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The oracle bones offered the earliest glimpse into the tradition of Chinese writing. China’s earliest form of writing were pictograph. To represent complex notions the written language combined pictographs into an ideograph.
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Moses embraced monotheism. Moses taught that there was only one god, Yahweh. Other gods including the various Mesopotamian deities, were impostors. The Hebrews decorated the temple in honor of Yahweh.
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Olmec means rubber people. The meaning, rubber people, came from the rudder tree that flourished the regions they inhabited. The heartland of Olmec society produced rich harvests.
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Chinese politics and statecraft became more clear in the Zhou dynasty. The Zhou state was large which made the rulers rely on a decentralized administration.
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The Zhou theory of politics were closely related to heavenly affairs. They thought that heavenly power will lead to the right way of governing. The ruler was served as the link between heaven and earth
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Iron also put impact in new tools at about 1000 B.C.E. Iron tools and weapons were later developed by the craftsmen from Hittite society. The use of iron weapons led Assyrians able to build their empire. Also iron was much more cheaper and more widely available than copper, tin, and bronze.
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The Chavin cult appeared suddenly in the central Andes. During the Chavin Cult, Andean Society became increasingly complex. The Chavin culture had advanced skills and knowledge in metallurgy. They used their techniques to develop refined gold work.
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After the collapse of the Babylonian the Assyrians extended their authority at about 1300 B.C.E. The Assyrian empire embraced Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Anatolia, and Egypt. They followed the laws that were similar to the code of Hammurabi.
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Maya were the earliest heirs of the Olmecs. The society of Maya included a large class of priests. They transmitted knowledge of writing, astronomy, and mathematics. They also constructed the most elaborate calendar.
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The vedic society sought to put women under the authority of men. Manu the founder of the human race made the Lawbook of Manu. Lawbook of Manu dealt with proper moral behavior and social relationship. The lawbook said men to treat women with honor and respect and women should be remain subject to the guidance of men.
