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1044
Compass
The first definitive mention of a magnetic compass dates from a Chinese book finished in 1044. It describes how soldiers found their way by using a fish-shaped piece of magnetized iron floating in a bowl of water when the sky was too cloudy to see the stars. -
1300
Mechanical Clock
Hourglass and water clocks had been around for centuries, but the first mechanical clocks began to appear in Europe toward the end of the 13th century and were used in cathedrals to mark the time when services would be held. -
1455
Printing
Johannes Gutenberg completed the printing of the Bible, which was the first book printed in the West using movable type. Gutenberg’s printing press led to an information explosion in Europe. -
Steam engine
James Watt improved the Newcomen steam engine by adding a condenser that turned the steam back into liquid water. This condenser was separate from the cylinder that moved the piston, which meant that the engine was much more efficient. The steam engine became one of the most important inventions of the Industrial Revolution. -
Railways
English engineer Richard Trevithick improved James Watt’s steam engine and used it for transport. He built the first railway locomotive at an ironworks in Wales. -
Steamboat
Robert Fulton put the steam engine on water. His steamboat that was eventually called the Clermont took 32 hours to go up the Hudson River from New York City to Albany. Sailing ships took four days. -
Photography
In the early 1820s, Nicéphore Niépce became interested in using a light-sensitive solution to make copies of lithographs onto glass, zinc, and finally a pewter plate. He then had the great idea to use his solution to make a copy of an image in a camera obscura (a room or box with a small hole in one end through which an image of the outside is projected). In 1826 or 1827, he made an eight-hour-long exposure of the courtyard of his house, the first known photograph. -
Reaper
For thousands of years, harvesting crops was very labour-intensive. That changed with Cyrus McCormick’s invention of the mechanical reaper. The earliest reaper had some mechanical problems, but later versions spread throughout the world. -
Telegraph
Samuel Morse was a successful painter who became interested in the possibility of an electric telegraph in the 1830s. He patented a prototype in 1837. In 1844 he sent the first message over the first long-distance telegraph line, which stretched between Washington, D.C., and Baltimore. The message: “What hath God wrought.” -
Telephone
Once it was possible to send information through a wire in the form of dots and dashes, the next step was actual voice communication. Alexander Graham Bell made the first telephone call, on March 10, 1876, when he asked his assistant Tom Watson to come to him: “Mr Watson—come here—I want to see you.” -
Internal-combustion engine
German engineer Nikolaus Otto built an engine that, unlike the steam engine, used the burning of fuel inside the engine to move a piston. This type of engine would later be used to power automobiles. -
Electric light
After thousands of trials, American inventor Thomas Edison got a carbon-filament light bulb to burn for 13½ hours. Edison and others in his laboratory were also working on an electrical power distribution system to light homes and businesses, and in 1882 the Edison Electric Illuminating Company opened the first power plant. -
Automobile
The internal-combustion engine improved, becoming smaller and more efficient. Karl Benz used a one-cylinder engine to power the first modern automobile, a three-wheeled car that he drove around a track. However, the automobile did not make a commercial splash until 1888, when his wife, Bertha, exasperated with Karl’s slow methodical pace, took an automobile without his knowledge on a 64-mile trip to see her mother. -
Radio
Guglielmo Marconi had been experimenting with radio since 1894 and was sending transmissions over longer and longer distances. In 1901 his reported transmission of the Morse code letter S across the Atlantic from Cornwall to Newfoundland excited the world. -
Airplane
On December 17 Orville Wright made the first airplane flight, of 120 feet, near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. He and his brother Wilbur made four flights that day. On the last, Wilbur flew 852 feet. -
Rocketry
As a young boy in the late 1890s, Robert Goddard was inspired by H.G. Wells’s The War of the Worlds and the possibilities of space travel. As a middle-aged man in the mid-1920s, he achieved the first test flight of a liquid-fueled rocket, from his aunt’s farm in Auburn, Massachusetts. The rocket flew 12.5 meters (41 feet) in the air. -
Television
Early television used a mechanical disk to scan an image. As a teenager in Utah, Philo T. Farnsworth became convinced that a mechanical system would not be able to scan and assemble images multiple times a second. Only an electronic system would do that. In 1922 the 16-year-old Farnsworth worked out a plan for such a system, but it wasn’t until 1927 that he made the first electronic television transmission, a horizontal line. -
Computer
Iowa State mathematician and physicist John Atanasoff designed the first electronic digital computer. It would use binary numbers (base 2, in which all numbers are expressed with the digits 0 and 1), and its data would be stored in capacitors. In 1939 he and his student Clifford Berry began building the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). -
Nuclear Power
As part of the Manhattan Project to build the first atomic bomb, it was necessary to understand nuclear reactions in detail. On December 2 underneath the football stands at the University of Chicago, a team of physicists led by Enrico Fermi used uranium to produce the first self-sustaining chain reaction. -
Transistor
On December 23 Bell Labs engineers John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley gave the first public demonstration of the transistor, an electrical component that could control, amplify, and generate current. The transistor was much smaller and used less power than vacuum tubes and ushered in an era of cheap small electronic devices. -
Spaceflight
The Soviet Union surprised the world on October 4, when it launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, a small 83.6-kg (184.3-pound) metal sphere. The space race began between the Soviet Union and the United States, opening up a new front in the Cold War. -
Personal Computer
The first computers that emerged after World War II were gigantic, but, with advances in technology, especially in putting many transistors on a semiconductor chip, computers became both smaller and more powerful. Finally, they became small enough for home use. The first such personal computer was the Altair, which was soon supplanted in 1977 by the Apple II, the TRS-80, and the Commodore PET. -
Internet
Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn produced the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), which describes how data can be broken down into smaller pieces called packets and how these packets can be transmitted to the right destination. TCP/IP became the basis for how data is transmitted over the Internet. -
CRISPR
American biochemist Jennifer Doudna and French microbiologist Emmanuelle Charpentier developed CRISPR-Cas9, a method for editing genes—that is, making changes to DNA sequences. Gene editing has the potential to treat many diseases but also opens up the ethical gray area of creating designer humans. -
Artificial Intelligence
The team behind the AlphaGo artificial intelligence program announced that it had become the world’s best go player. Go is a game with very simple rules but many possible positions. The previous year AlphaGo had defeated the great player Lee Sedol in a match 4–1. AlphaGo then played itself and, through continual improvement, was able to defeat the version that had defeated Lee, 100–0. Through machine learning, AlphaGo had become better at the game than any human. -
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