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Dred Scott vs. Sandford
Dred Scott was an enslaved African American who had been taken by his owners to free states. He attempted to sue for his freedom. In his case Dred Scott vs. Sandford, a 7-2 decision denied Scott's request. The Supreme Court held that slaves could not be citizens and that former slaves could not be protected by the Constitution. -
13th Amendment
The 13th Amendment ended slavery and involuntary servitude except as a punishment for crime. The first of three Reconstruction Amendments, the amendment was passed by Congress on January 31st of 1865 and ratified on December 6th of 1865. -
14th Amendment
The 14th Amendment addresses citizenship rights and equal protection of the laws. The second of three Reconstruction Amendments, the amendment has formed the basis of many landmark cases and decisions regarding rights and liberties. It was ratified on July 9th of 1868. -
15th Amendment
The 15th Amendment prohibits the federal and state governments from denying a citizen the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude. The final of three Reconstruction Amendments, it was ratified on February 3rd of 1870. -
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Poll Taxes
Poll taxes were payment prerequisites to the registration of voting. Poll taxes emerged as a part of the Jim Crow laws that were established between the mid-1870s and 1880's. Because many minorities at the time were poor, they could not pay the taxes and could therefore not vote. Poor white males were an exception due to the grandfather clause. Poll taxes remained a prerequisite until the 24th Amendment prohibited them. -
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White Primaries
White primaries were primary elections in the Southern states in which only white voters were allowed to participate. White primaries were one of many methods used to keep minorities from voting. They were established in many Southern states after 1890 and lasted until the mid-1900's when the Supreme Court ruled them unconstitutional. -
Plessy vs. Ferguson
The Louisiana legislature required equal but separate accommodations for Whites and colored races in railroad transportation. Homer Plessy (who was seven-eighths White) had been arrested for refusing to leave a railway car reserved for Whites. The Court upheld the law, saying that segregation in public facilities was not unconstitutional. -
19th Amendment
The 19th Amendment prohibits any US citizen from being denied the right to vote based on sex. It was the culmination of the women's suffrage movement in the US. It was ratified on August 18th of 1920, forty-two years after it was introduced to Congress. -
Equal Rights Amendment
The Equal Rights Amendment was a proposed amendment designed to give equal rights to women. It was introduced to Congress in 1923 and passed in 1972 for ratification, but it received only 35 of the 38 necessary state ratifications. -
Brown vs. Board of Education
The case Brown vs. Board of Education overturned the decision made in Plessy vs. Ferguson. The Court declared laws establishing separate public schools to be unconstitutional. The 9-0 decision stated that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal." -
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Affirmative Action
Affirmative Action refers to favoring members of a disadvantaged group who suffer from discrimination. Affirmative Action was first introduced in the US when Executive Order 10925 was signed by John F. Kennedy on March 6th of 1961 and still exists today. -
24th Amendment
Poll taxes were originally held to be constitutional in the Breedlove vs. Suttles decision. However, when the 24th Amendment was ratified on January 23rd of 1964, only five states retained a poll tax. The 24th Amendment prohibits requiring a poll tax for voters in federal elections. It was not until 1966 that the Supreme Court ruled that poll taxes were unconstitutional in Harper vs. Virginia Board of Elections. -
Civil Rights Act of 1964
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It ended unequal voting requirements and racial segregation in schools, workforce, and public facilities. The Act was signed into law by former President Lyndon B. Johnson on July 2nd of 1964. -
Voting Rights Act of 1965
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibits racial discrimination in voting. The Act outlaws literacy tests and other devices historically used to prevent minorities from voting. It was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on August 6th of 1965. -
Reed vs. Reed
Sally and Cecil Reed were a married couple who had separated and were in conflict over who would be designated administrator over the estate of their deceased son. Taken to the Supreme Court as the case Reed vs. Reed, the Court ruled that the administrators of estates cannot discriminate between sexes. -
Regents of the University of California vs. Bakke
In the case Regents of the University of California vs. Bakke, the Supreme Court upheld affirmative action, allowing race to be a factor in college admissions; however, the Court ruled that specific quotas for minority students were impermissible. -
Bowers vs. Hardwick
In the case Bowers vs. Hardwick, the Supreme Court held in a 5-4 ruling that laws criminalizing private sexual behavior between homosexuals were constitutional. The majority opinion argued that the Constitution did not grant a "fundamental right to engage in homosexual sodomy." -
Americans With Disabilities Act
The Americans With Disabilities Act prohibits discrimination based on disability. The Act also requires employers to provide reasonable accommodations to employees with disabilities and imposes accessibility requirements on public accommodations. The Act was made law on July 26th of 1990. -
Lawrence vs. Texas
Two men were arrested on the outskirts of Houston for engaging in sexual activity. In their case Lawrence vs. Texas, the Supreme Court struck down the sodomy law in Texas and invalidated sodomy laws in other states, allowing same-sex sexual activity in the US. The case overturned the 1986 Bowers vs. Hardwick decision.
