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Louis XVIII, King of France
Restored to the throne after Napoleon’s defeat.
His moderate reign tried to balance royalist and liberal demands. -
Congress of Vienna
European powers met to restore order after Napoleon’s fall.
It redrew Europe’s borders and reinstated monarchies. -
Waterloo Battle
It was a crucial confrontation in Belgium, between the French army of Napoleon Bonaparte and the allied British, German and Prussian forces. -
Spanish Liberal Biennium
Liberal forces re-established the 1812 Constitution in Spain. It ended when France intervened to restore absolutism. -
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Charles X, King of France
A reactionary king who sought to restore absolute monarchy.
His policies triggered the July Revolution of 1830. -
Independence of Greece
Greeks fought a long war to break free from Ottoman rule. They gained independence with help from major European powers. -
Independece of Belgium
Nationalist uprisings led to secession from the Netherlands. Belgium was recognized as an independent, neutral state. -
Period: to
Louis Philippe, King of France
Came to power as the "Citizen King" after Charles X's fall. He was overthrown during the revolution of 1848. -
The Zollverein (German Customs Union)
An economic alliance of German states led by Prussia.
It removed trade barriers and promoted economic unity. -
Revolution of 1848 / Spring of Nations
Massive uprisings spread across Europe demanding reforms. They called for democracy, national unity, and workers’ rights. -
Period: to
France’s Second Republic
Formed after the 1848 revolution against Louis Philippe. It ended when Louis-Napoleon seized power as emperor. -
Period: to
France’s Second Empire: Napoleon III
Louis-Napoleon declared himself Emperor Napoleon III. His reign saw modernization and foreign military ventures. -
Battles of Magenta and Solferino
France and Sardinia defeated Austria in northern Italy. These battles paved the way for Italian unification. -
Garibaldi Conquers the Kingdom of the Two Sicilie
Garibaldi’s volunteer army overthrew the southern monarchy. He handed the lands to King Victor Emmanuel II. -
Victor Emmanuel II, King of Italy
Proclaimed the first king of a unified Italy.
He played a central role in the unification process. -
Danish-Prussian War
Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark over Schleswig-Holstein. This marked the start of Bismarck’s unification campaigns. -
Austro-Prussian War
Prussia decisively defeated Austria in seven weeks.
This excluded Austria from German affairs and united the north. -
Franco-Prussian War
Prussia’s victory over France unified the German states. It led to the fall of Napoleon III and the birth of the German Empire. -
Wilhelm I, Kaiser of the Second German Reich
Proclaimed Emperor in Versailles after Prussia’s victory. He became the first ruler of a unified Germany.