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Gallipoli campaign
Apr-Dec 1915 NZ + Aus forces (known as Anzacs) played important role in Gallipoli campaign - an attempted invasion of Turkey -
British + French secret plot to divide the Middle East
British + French diplomats plotted to divided up Middle East - Fr: SE Turkey, N Iraq, Syria, Lebanon + Br: Jordan, S Iraq + Palestine Br eager to gain control over Palestine -- proximity to Suez Canal + incorporated into main overland route to Indian + Asian Empire -
Conscription introduced in New Zealand (1916) + Canada (1917)
After initially around 4000 First Nations people in Canada volunteered (50 won medals of bravery) + 1000 indigenous Australians + 2500 Māori -- enthusiasm dried up after heavy losses in 1915 - conscription introduced -
Easter Rising in Ireland
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Presidents of Dominions + Indian representatives joined war cabinet
'Imperial war cabinet' symbolised the union of British Empire in face of war
But... only held 2 sessions and mostly represented white + elite opinion + British dominated proceedings -
Vimy Ridge
Canadians forces applauded for their bravery in battle of Vimy Ridge in Northern France (Apr 1917)- Canada supplied Britain with munitions (1/3 of munitions used by British Army in France from 1917 -1918) + wheat
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India contributed £100 mill to war effort
- 1.3 mill service men enlisted/conscription was never introduced in India In recognition of contribution - Edwin Montagu (Secretary of State for India) promised more 'responsible' self-gov for India that included democratic representation for ordinary Indians in Aug 1917
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Balfour Declaration
Arthur Balfour (Foreign Secretary) sent letter to Walter Rothschild (leader in the British Jewish community) -- expressed support for 'national homeland' for Jews in Palestine but... did so with the understanding that this did not equal a 'separate' Jewish state + not undermine the rights of the Arab Palestinian population
Released to the press and contradicted the Palestinian mandate -
Rejection of Conscription
French Canadians in Quebec regarded war as pro-British affair + Mar 1918 = anti-conscription protest riots in Quebec city (+Australians rejected conscription x2 in referendums - Oct 1916 + Dec 1917) -
Zionist Commission arrived in Palestine
Following Balfour Doctrine -- British sponsored Zionist commission arrived in Palestine in 1918
Muslim + Christians formed a Muslim-Christian association between 1918-20 -- violent clashes + deaths on both sides between the Arabs + Jews
Jewish pop = 60,000/9% in 1918 -
Rowlett Act
Gave authorities harsh powers to arrest + imprison anyone who protested against British rule
Ex of stick in 'carrot + stick' approach designed to contain demands for Indian equity with the Dominions -
Amritsar Massacre
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Government of India Act p.1
Allowed limited system of self-gov based on the sharing of powers between Indian ministers + British Viceroy -- intended to satisfy demands for greater Indian representation by presenting reforms as a step towards full dominion status for India
Legislative Council split into Legislative Assembly + Council of State -- provincial councils ran by elected Indian ministers took responsibility for local government, health, education + agriculture -
1st Pan-African Conference
Held in France in 1919
Experience of war proved formative for independence movements -
Treaty of Versailles
Stripped Germany of former colonies -- 'mandates' administered for the League of Nations by specific allied powers
Guiding principle = 'self-determination' but... US, Fr + UK leadership rejected proposal from Japanese gov to include clause about racial equality + argued mandates were politically and economically undeveloped with uneducated populations Mandate system:
'A' - quite developed
'B' - required long period of guidance before independence
'C' - independence not considered feasible -
Anglo-Iraqi Treaty 1922
Confirmed King Faisal I (Hashemite dynasty - good relations with Br) ruled Syria as King -- regarded as the ideal compromise candidate but...senior British leaders remained in position to ensure continuing control of Iraq -
Egypt granted formal independence
Granted formal independence in 1922 but...
cont. British informal control + cont. to be a client state until 1954 -- British troops remained stationed in Egypt until Anglo-Egyptian treaty in 1936 (but troops remained in the Suez Canal Zone) -
Simon Commission
1929-30
No Indian representation
Reviewed the Gov of India act + recommended federal system of gov created across India (incorporate princely states + provinces under direct British rule) provinces given more power defence, internal security and foreign affairs should remain in the hands of the British viceroy to ensure British overall control -
The Round Table Conferences 1930 and 1931
Opposition to Indian independence movements -- two special 'Round Table Conferences" in London (1930+31)
Gandhi represented Congress Party in 1931 (imprisoned for Salt Marches at time of 1st conference)
No agreement reached -- Br rejected self-gov Dominion status for India due to prejudice about the competence of non-white leaders /peoples + concern surrounding India's strategic/economic importance to Br -
Statute of Westminster
- Certain Dominions should be independent nations
- laws passed in Britain could not be enforced in those countries without permission of the gov in that country
- dominion countries were to be free to pass own laws without interference from Britain Came into effect in Canada, S.Africa + Irish Free State in 1931 Ratified and came into law in Australia (42) and NZ (47)
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Loss of Iraq (Mesopotamia)
Britain ruled Iraq as a mandated territory for 12 years since 1920
Country never stable + conflicting nationalist movements sought independence -- Oct 1932 Kingdom of Iraq gained independence under King Faisal I but new gov. maintained close ties with Britain (retained air bases) -
Government of India Act pt.2
Created a Federation of India -- made provinces completely self-gov (provincial governors still appointed by the British + Viceroy could suspend power in emergencies) + expanded franchise from 7 mill to 35 mill people
Rejected by Congress Party -- not full independence /free from British rule
Rejected by Princely States --wanted to maintain their independence from the rest of India -
British sent troops to Palestine
1936 - British sent 20,000 troops to Palestine to deal with Arab insurgency + attacks on Jews
1937 - 39 - Policy of repression to deal with escalating violence -- 25,000 Br troops sent to region (over 9000 Arabs arrested + 100 hanged) -
The Peel Report
recommend Palestine should be partitioned into separate Arab + Jewish areas with Britain retaining authority over Jerusalem + small number of holy places --- opposed by the Arab population -
2nd World War Began
Germany invaded Poland and Britain declared war in Sep 1939 -
Battle of El Alamein
Nov 1942 - Britain defeated German Army that had come close to dislodging British in Suez area/Middle East + after battle British began process of sweeping Ger out of N Africa + securing Br control of Egypt/Middle East -
Launch of the 'Ouit India' campaign
After Sir Stafford Cripps sent to India by Churchill to promise Indians full Dominion status = not enough
Aug 1942 -- Gandhi + other Hindu Congress leaders launched a 'Quit India' Campaign + called for British to leave India completely
Gandhi + others arrested + spent rest of war in prison -
Japanese advancement in Southeast Asia
early 1942 -- Japan seized major European imperial possessions in SE Asia - loss of Singapore in Feb 1942 (main Br military base in the region + = biggest surrender of Br troops in history)
Unsuccessful Japanese attempt to invade India in 1944 meant Br able to roll back Japanese conquest in the region
Japanese success ended myth of 'white invincibility' + gave confidence to independence movements in SE Asia -
Britain post war gov.
After victory in 1945 -- severely weakened economic position; 1st majority labour gov; independence movements stronger (particularly in Middle East + India)
Labour victory -- Clement Atlee won landslide victory with majority of 145 - represented voters belief in Labour gov to rebuild Britain + bring about social reform -
Indian independence
New Viceroy -- Lord Mountbatten sent to India with instruction to bring about Indian independence asap (no later than Jun 1948)
Apr -May 1947: decision made that India was to be partitioned (Pakistan + India) -- independence granted for both by 15 Aug 1947
Millions of people fled for the country in which their own faith would dominate -- at least a mill people died in violence -
British withdrawal from Palestine
Two major problems in Palestine: American opinion favoured Jewish settlement in Pal but Br wanted to maintain their Arab allies outbreaks of Jewish terrorism in Pal against Br troops
Three solutions: unitary state provincial autonomy partition into separate Arab/Jewish states
Feb 1947 - British handed question over to UN
Sep 1947 - British decided they would withdraw from Pal (by May 1948) + hand over control to UN commission -
Burmese Independence
Anti-Fascist Org (AFO) switched sides in 1944 (allied victory became clear+the more likely way to win independence)
AFO became Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League+resisted the reestablishment of Br control
Mountbatten recognised support for Aung Sung+agreed the Burma National Army (led by AS) could be incorporated into army (Sep 1945)= recognition of AS as leader
AS allowed onto Executive Council in Sep 1946+Dec 1946-Atlee - troops would not be committed to impose Br control
Independent=1948