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A Seeing Experience
The early twentieth century approach to instructional technology focused mainly on the physical means of teaching and learning. This approach was reflected by the uptick in publick school usage of films, pictures, and lantern slides -
School Museums
The first school museum opens in St. Louis, MO. The museum was where the majority of supplementary instructional materials were held, such as stereographs, slides, films, prints, charts, etc. Cities in Pennsylvania and Ohio followed suit in the first decade of the twentieth century. -
Visual Education
Keystone View Company published a guide for teachers using stereographs and lantern slides. -
The Motion Picture Projector
Media devices for visual instruction in schools gain momentum with the motion picture projector. Public schools in Rochester, NY are the first public school system to start regularly using films for instruction. -
Edison's Proclamation
"Books will soon be obsolete in the schools... it is possible to teach every branch of human knowledge with the motion picture. Our school system will be completely changed in the next ten years" (Saettler, 1968, p.98) -
From Visual to Audiovisual
The visual instruction movement evolved to become the audiovisual instruction movement despite the Great Depression during this time. Just like with the motion picture, people predicted that radio would change the face of instruction forever. -
World War II
World War II sparks increased interest in instructional design and instructional media. Troops are trained using motion pictures. Researchers and psychologists in the field of education develop more effective training materials for the miliary. Focus is kept on instructional principles regrading learning and human behavior. -
Television
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) decides to dedicate 242 channels to the purpose of educating viewers. The Ford Foundation spends over $170 million on projects for developing educational television. -
Programed Instruction Movement
Behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner devises a data driven approach where instructional materials have the following characteristics:
"- Small steps
- Require active responses to frequent questions
- Provide immediate feedback
- Allow for learner self pacing" (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018) -
Sputnik and Formative Evaluation
Fearful of becoming second best in the space race, the U.S. pours funds into science and math education in hopes of catching up to the former Soviet Union's progress. The programs were put together quickly by content experts, not experts in pedagogy. In consequence, researchers realize that programs need to be tested for effectiveness before they are released in their final form. -
Mager's Behavioral Objectives
Still used today, Robert Mager wrote his book "Preparing Objectives for Programmed Instruction" in 1962. The three major elements of his approach to writing objectives are "include a description of desired learner behaviors, the conditions under which the behaviors are to be performed, and the standards (criteria) by which the behaviors are to be judged." (Reiser & Dempsey, 2018, pp. 13) -
Student Growth through Criterion Referenced Testing
Robert Glaser, among others, coins the term criterion referenced measures to describe a new type of testing that could assess a student based on their entry level performance compared to their end result without emphasis on how they compare to others. -
Gagne's Conditions of Learning
Robert M. Gagne published his book "Conditions of Learning" in 1965 which featured five domains of learning and nine events of instruction.
Five Domains:
Verbal, intellectual, psychomotor, attitude, cognitive strategies
Nine Events of Instruction: "Teaching activities essential for promoting the attainment of any type of learning outcome" (Raiser & Dempsey, 2018) -
An Ever-Changing Field
An updated definition in 1970 by the Commission on Instructional Technology focuses on the field's strong foundations in research. This redefinition was inspired by the use of technology in schools, particularly in examining benefits and drawbacks. The use of systematic processes as well as nonhuman and human resources is discussed. -
A Lull in Education, A Boom Elsewhere
Instructional design became more popular outside of the traditional education realm in the 1970s. Military uses continuined to flourish while interest in instructional design increased for industry, business, and international development. -
ADDIE first appears
Reiser & Dempsey refer to ADDIE as a "legacy model" of instructional system design. ADDIE stands for Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate and has been the basis for subsequent iterations. According to writer Donald Clark, ADDIE came about in a military context in 1975 (Clark, 2015). -
1977 Redefinition
The Association for Educational Communication and Technology (AECT) came up with a new, lengthier definition of IDT that emphasized a systematic design process and introduced the terms "human learning problems and solutions". -
Rise of the Personal Computer
The computer was the first innovation in a while to pick up steam in terms of instructional design and media. Just like Edison's proclamation that the visual instruction movement would replace books, many people predicted that the computer would change education forever. In comparison to Edison, however, they were right. Instructional design turned to computer based instruction for never before seen interactive capabilities. -
Beyond a Systematic Process
Yet another definition is written in 1994 that borrows and rejects from both older and newer definitions and is characterised by five domains: design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation. The goal is improvement of learning and the means to that goal is instruction. -
Performance Improvement Movement
Computers for instructional purposes in the workforce were used not only to train employees but also to track and improve job performance. -
World Wide Web and Beyond
Online instruction in K-12, postsecondary, industry, and military continues to increase in popularity due to its accesibility and interactivity. Social media, handheld devices, and performance support tools have replaced formal training in the workplace. -
Merrill's Pebble
In 2002, David Merrill published an article about a new instructional design approach opposed to ADDIE which he called "Pebble-In-The-Pond". The metaphor is a pebble "problem" being dropped into a pond and the subsequent ripples are "progression, component skills, enhance strategies, finalize design," and "evaluation" (Reiser & Dempsey, 2017, p. 35). -
Successive Approximation Model (SAM)
The Successive Approximation Model (SAM) was developed by Michael W. Allen in 2012 in response to ADDIE as a more simplified model that focuses on learner experience. -
Dick & Carey Model
Dick, Carey, and Carey created a linear model in 2015 that is referred to as the Dick & Carey model. This model, like many others, is based off of the ADDIE process. -
Instructional and Noninstructional Means
Reiser & Dempsey describe the definition that they adopt with their book, Trends and Issues in ID&T, on page 4. With a basis on the latest AECT definition, their definition also points to the human performance technology movement that focus on instructional and noninstructional methods. An example of instructional is like training or courses, while noninstructional is like social media and mobile learning.
