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This was a supreme court case that challenged the "separate by equal" clause established in Plessy v. Ferguson. Heman Marion Sweatt was refused admission to the University of Texas on the grounds that the Texas Constitution did not allow integrated education. The court voted in favor of Sweatt ruling that the states racially separated school was not equal. Legislation/Supreme Court Case -
During this time there was a lot of civil unrest, and we saw the creation of many key groups that advocated for change. During this time we also see some opposition rise up against, and a few court cases to decide what is constitutional and what isn't.
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Many northern Americans were extremely resistant to integration. Many fought against peaceful protesters, and made threats to African Americans who tried to go to integrated schools. It all came about after Brown v. Board which said that segregated schools violated the "equal protection" clause. Violence by Protesters -
A 14-year-old, Emmett Till, was visiting his family in Mississippi. Allegedly he whistled at an older white woman, and was later kidnapped and brutally murdered. His body was later dumped in a river. This murder led to a string of people realizing the injustices in which white aggregators were being put on trial and acquitted. Violence by Opposition -
This court ruling led to the desegregation of buses traveling across state lines. The ruling came at the beginning of the Civil Rights Movement, and began when private Sarah Keys was forced to give up her seat to a white Marine as she was going home. A court battle ensued for about two-years and happened around the same time as Brown v. Board. Legislation/Supreme Court Case -
The Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) was created to fight for civil rights and specifically for the desegregation of buses in Montgomery. The MIA played a big role in the desegregation of buses and many protests. After reaching its goals, it continued to help register African Americans to vote, and organize student sit-ins until it ended in 1969. Protest, Achievement -
President Eisenhower created a proposal for Congress for civil rights legislation. What happened was the Civil Rights Act of 1957 which was the first civil rights legislation since Reconstruction. The act allowed federal prosecutors to get court injunctions against interference with the rights to vote, and created a civil rights commission which was given authority to investigate discriminatory behavior. Legislation/Supreme Court Case -
This organization--SCLC--grew as an offshoot from the MIA. This group organized the 381-day boycott of Montgomery's bus system. The groups advocated fro confrontation of segregation through boycotts, marches, and other nonviolent means. It played key roles in many large events later on during the Civil Rights era. Protest, Achievement -
Nine black students were enrolled at a formerly white school. After Brown v. Board, this was a test of the new laws against segregation. On the students' first day of class the Governor called the national guard to prevent the students from entering the school, and hundreds of people came to protest. Eisenhower then sent federal troops to escort the students into the school. This was one of the first events of integrating schools. Violence by Opposition -
This case was attempting to determine whether officials in Arkansas were bound by federal court orders about desegregation. This case came as a result of the Little Rock Nine, and said that the Arkansas officials were in fact bound by the federal court orders that were based up on the Court's decision in Brown v. Board. Legislation/Supreme Court Case -
This was probably the most dynamic decade of the three. Most of the large protests took place during this time and much of the violence occurred here as well. MLK, Medgar Evers, and Malcom X were all assassinated in this decade.
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This was a protest that started when young African-American students sat at Woolworth's lunch counter in Greensboro. They refused to leave after being denied service and the sit-in movement continued to spread across the south. They would sit-in until the store closed costing the business money. Many protesters were arrested and food was often thrown on them. Protest, Violence by Opposition -
These were a series of political protests against segregation. Earlier the U.S. Supreme Court banned segregation in interstate bus travel. A group left Washington D.C. planning to reach New Orleans, but were attacked in Rock Hill, SC, when they attempted to enter a whites-only waiting area--which facilities used in interstate travel were not allowed to be segregated as ruled in Boynton v. Virginia. Protest, Violence by Opposition -
This was a movement aimed to end institutionalized segregation. They used nonviolent tactics to pressure the government to ban segregation. When segregation finally was banned in some areas, then they would "test" it by purposely using those facilities. The movement was intended to end all racial segregation but they were focusing on the segregation in travel facilities. Protest, No Violence -
This was a civil rights protest where African Americans didn't ride in city buses to protest segregated seating. It was sparked by the arrest of Rosa Parks, and was a time where African Americans found alternate forms of transportation. They carpooled together which cost the bus company a lot of money. Eventually legislation was passed which made it illegal to segregate in Alabama on the buses, but was a start for a lot of change across the country. Protest, No Violence -
Riots broke out on the campus of the University of Mississippi where segrationists had gathered to prostest James Meredith, an African American Air-Force veteran who was enrolled at the university. The NAACP eventually filed a lawsuit against the university and it went to the Supreme Court which ruled in Meredith's favor allowing him to attend the school. Achievement -
This was a series of nonviolent action which ended in public confrontation between the segregationists and the demonstrators. They were arrested, attacked by police dogs, and sprayed with high pressure fire hoses during their protests, but the protests eventually led to the desegregation of Birmingham and increased attention to racial segregation in the South. Protest, Violence by Opposition -
A civil rights activist and NAACP field secretary, Medgar Evars, was killed at his home. His murder helped to bring people to action for equality and justice in the U.S.. His murderer was eventually found guilty in 1994 and sentenced to life in prison. Violence by Opposition -
This was the largest civil rights gathering of its time. Almost 250,000 people attended from all over the country. They protested against employment discrimination, and civil rights abuses against African Americans, and other minority groups to pressure the White House to take action. The March led John F. Kennedy to create a federal civil rights bill in Congress which was eventually passed. Protest -
This was a ginormous voter registration drive where Congress on Racial Equality brought together people and tried to fight voter discrimination. Many volunteers worked together to register voters, but ultimately only 1,200 registrations were successful. And while it wasn't entirely successful it did convince LBJ to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Violence by Opposition -
In 1964, the act was passed by Congress and prohibited discrimination in any way anywhere. "The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin. Provisions of this civil rights act forbade discrimination on the basis of sex, as well as, race in hiring, promoting, and firing" (USDOL). Legislation/Supreme Court Case -
This case happened in response to the question of whether the Commerce Clause--which allows the federal government to only interfere in any commerce, or transportation that crosses state lines--deprived places of public accommodation the right to choose their customers. The court ruled that since the hotel was near Interstates, specifically the heart of Atlanta motel, then it had an impact on interstate commerce and was justified under the Commerce Clause. Legislation/Supreme Court Case -
Malcom X was a religious and civil rights leader who was assassinated during a speech he gave in Manhattan. He was a charismatic speaker and motivated many people to fight for civil rights. Before his death he and his family had received many threats and even had one of their homes firebombed. Violence by Opposition -
In Selma, hundreds of people gathered to march to Montgomery--the capitol. They marched to make sure that African Americans would be able to vote, given that they were given that constitutional rights, and in light of the segregationist system that wanted to make it as difficult as possible. Protest, Violence by Opposition -
This act was signed by LBJ, and outlawed the many ways African Americans were not allowed to vote. It banned the literacy tests, and such, and ensured that African Americans had an equal right to vote as anyone else. Achievement, Legislation/Supreme Court Case -
James Meredith, the guy who enrolled in the Universality of Mississippi, intended to walk from Memphis to Jackson bring attention to voter discrimination and racism. Not very long after his march, he was shot by a white gunman, but after that 15,000 other people continued the march on for him in his honor. Protest, Violence by Opposition -
She was the first black woman to be elected to the U.S. Congress, and later the first black candidate to be nominated as a presidential candidate by a major-party. She said that she was the candidate of the people, and symbolized a new era in American history. But, her campaign was underfunded and she struggled to be seen as a serious candidate and not as a symbolic figure. Achievement -
MLK was fatally shot the Lorainne motel in Memphis. King received many death threats throughout his time known as a civil rights activist, and after supporting striking African-American city sanitation workers he returned to his motel and was shot on the balcony. His murderer, James Earl Ray, was sentenced to life in prison. Violence by Opposition -
The Fair Housing act made it illegal to discriminate in housing and applied to the sale, and rental of housing. It also allowed African Americans to get mortgages easier and not face more expensive prices simply because of their race. Achievement, Legislation/Supreme Court Case -
During this decade we see a lot of the legislation begin to form around true equality. It is also during this time we see many African Americans succeeding in the same area that white Americans were, for example Hank Aaron, and Barbara Jordan.
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The main debate of this case was whether the federal government could force states to integrate. The ruling decided that the federal government could remedy the issues that often arose when states either tried to integrate or simply resisted in the first place. Legislation/Supreme Court Case -
Hank Aaron hit his seven hundred and fifteenth home run, which beat Babe Ruth's record. The audio recording of the newscast became famous not long after. Saying, "Here’s the pitch by Downing … swinging … there’s a drive into left-center field! That ball is gonna be … outta here! It’s gone! It’s 715! There’s a new home run champion of all time, and it’s Henry Aaron," the recording was deemed vital to the history of America by the Library of Congress. Achievement -
Jordan delivered the keynote at the Democratic National Convention. Before then Jordan was a representative in the U.S. house of representatives. Her keynote was the first ever given by an African American women, and despite her not running for president, she received one delegate vote. Achievement -
The University of California denied admittance to Allan Bakke, a veteran. He was denied partly to his old age, but after repeatedly applying, the state challenged the constitutionality of the school's affirmative action program. This led to the end of California schools using race as a determining factor in admissions. Legislation/Supreme Court Case