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Frederick I crowned himself King in Prussia, initiating state-driven efforts to modernize the economy. Under Frederick William I, the state expanded manufacturing and encouraged rural economic stability. These reforms signal change, as Prussia shifted toward centralized economic planning and industrial growth. Yet they show continuity, since serfdom and Junker dominance remained in practice -
The Union created a single economic zone, removing trade barriers between Scotland and England. This new access to English colonial markets transformed Scottish industries, especially textiles, shipbuilding, and banking. The union represents economic change, because it integrated Scotland into a rapidly expanding Atlantic economy. Socially, however, traditional clan structures in the Highlands persisted, showing continuity. -
Thomas Newcomen successfully used his steam engine to pump water from coal mines. This innovation greatly expanded coal production, which fueled further industrial and economic growth. The invention represents significant economic change, laying the groundwork for mechanization. But it also reflects continuity, because most production still relied on human and animal labor, not machinery. -
When Robert Walpole became First Lord of the Treasury in 1721, he implemented policies designed to promote trade, lower taxes, and stabilize the currency after the South Sea Bubble crash. His support for mercantilist trade expansion strengthened Britain’s economic recovery. These policies demonstrate economic change by transitioning Britain toward more stable and regulated financial practices. Yet they represent continuity, because mercantilist ideology still guided British economic thinking. -
John Kay’s flying shuttle dramatically sped up weaving and increased textile production. This invention accelerated industrialization and raised demand for spun yarn. It represents economic change, as textile production became faster and more market-oriented. Still, the industry retained continuity, since it continued to rely on home-based labor rather than factories. -
This major European conflict required massive state funding, increasing taxation, and borrowing across Europe. The war stimulated weapons manufacturing and naval construction, especially in Britain and Prussia. This period demonstrates economic continuity, because states continued using mercantilist approaches to fund war. But it also shows change, as war-related debt pushed governments toward more sophisticated financial systems. -
By the early 1750s, parish data across France, Britain, Austria, and the German states documented rapidly rising birth rates and falling mortality rates. Larger populations fueled urban growth and expanded the labor supply for industrial economies. This marked social and economic change, as Europe shifted from stagnant demographic patterns to sustained population growth. Yet traditional family structures and patriarchal norms remained stable, demonstrating continuity. -
The Seven Years’ War reshaped imperial commerce, with Britain emerging dominant in North America and India. Wartime spending stimulated shipbuilding, banking, and manufacturing. The war brought economic change, as it reoriented European economies toward global trade and colonial competition. However, it also maintained continuity, reinforcing the long-standing link between warfare, taxation, and state power. -
The Tea Act sought to rescue the financially struggling British East India Company by giving it a monopoly on tea exports to the American colonies. Although aimed at overseas markets, the Act reflected Britain’s broader mercantilist attempts to regulate global commerce. This demonstrates economic continuity, as mercantilism remained Britain’s guiding principle. Yet the consumer backlash it sparked was a sign of social change, with consumers asserting political and economic agency. -
During the French Revolution, the National Assembly abolished feudal dues, serfdom, and noble privileges. This dismantled economic structures and rural social hierarchies. It represents dramatic change, as France moved from feudalism toward a modern, egalitarian society. The very need to abolish these structures, however, underscores continuity, since feudal obligations had survived deep into the 18th century.