-
European powers redraw borders after Napoleon’s defeat, restoring Austrian control over Northern Italy, and dividing the Italian peninsula among various states. -
German nationalists and students gather at Wartburg Castle, calling for German unity and liberal reforms -
Prussia leads the creation of the Zollverein, an economic union that unifies trade among German states, excluding Austria. -
British forces attacked China after the Qing government banned opium imports. -
Ended the First Opium War; Britain gained Hong Kong and forced China to open five ports to foreign trade. -
Uprisings break out across Italy demanding constitutional reforms and independence, notably in Sicily, Milan, and Venice. -
From March 1848 to June 1849. German liberals and nationalists attempt to unify Germany under a constitutional monarchy, but the movement is crushed. -
The first attempt at German unification through a constitutional monarchy is made, but fails in 1849 when Prussian King Frederick William IV rejects the imperial crown. -
A massive anti-Qing rebellion influenced by Christian ideology and resentment of foreign influence. -
The Kingdom of Sardinia (led by Charles Albert) fights Austria but is defeated. -
Britain and France fought China again to expand trade privileges. -
Secret meeting between Cavour (Prime Minister of Sardinia) and Napoleon III (Emperor of France), securing French support against Austria. -
Sardinia and France fight Austria, leading to the annexation of Lombardy into Sardinia. -
Giuseppe Garibaldi and his Redshirts invade Sicily and Naples, leading to the fall of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. -
Anglo-French forces burned the Summer Palace; China legalized opium and granted foreigners more rights. -
Victor Emmanuel II is declared King of Italy, though Rome and Venetia remain outside Italian control. -
Bismarck becomes Minister-President of Prussia and declares that German unification will be achieved through war (blood and iron) rather than diplomacy -
Italy allies with Prussia against Austria and gains Venetia after Austria’s defeat. -
Prussia defeats Austria, establishing Prussian dominance in German affairs and dissolving the German Confederation. The North German Confederation is formed in 1867. -
The German Empire (Deutsches Kaiserreich) is declared at Versailles, with King Wilhelm I of Prussia becoming Kaiser (Emperor). -
France, fearing Prussian power, declares war. Prussia defeats Napoleon III, leading to German unification. -
Napoleon III is captured, marking the collapse of the Second French Empire and paving the way for the unification of Germany. -
Italian forces seize Rome, ending Papal States' control, and making Rome the capital of unified Italy. -
Ends the Franco-Prussian War; Germany annexes Alsace-Lorraine, creating tensions with France. -
Defines the Pope’s status after losing territorial power, he rejects it, leading to the Roman Question. -
British forces invaded the Zulu Kingdom, leading to its eventual conquest. -
Bismarck passes laws banning socialist parties, securing conservative control over the new German Empire. -
Muhammad Ahmad declared himself the Mahdi and led a jihad against British-Egyptian rule. -
European powers met to divide Africa without African representation. -
King Leopold II was granted personal control over the Congo, beginning one of the most brutal colonial regimes. -
Ethiopia, under Menelik II, decisively defeated Italy, preserving its independence. -
Anti-foreign, anti-Christian uprising aiming to expel Westerners. -
Britain and France nearly went to war over Sudan but reached a diplomatic agreement. -
British forces clashed with Dutch-descended Boers over control of South Africa. -
Western and Japanese forces crushed the Boxer Rebellion and imposed heavy reparations on China. -
Germany launched a campaign to exterminate indigenous groups in Namibia after an uprising. -
African resistance against German colonial rule in East Africa began but was violently suppressed. -
Emperor Puyi abdicated after years of internal decline and foreign pressure, ending imperial China. -
At the start of World War I, over 90% of Africa was under European control. -
After World War I, Italy gains South Tyrol Istria from Austria, completing territorial unification. -
Mass protests erupted after the Treaty of Versailles gave Germany’s Chinese territories to Japan. -
Mao Zedong declared the founding of the People’s Republic of China, ending most Western influence.