Italian unification

Congress of Vienna

Jun 9, 1815

European powers redraw borders after Napoleon’s defeat, restoring Austrian control over Northern Italy, and dividing the Italian peninsula among various states.

Wartburg Festival

Oct 1, 1816

German nationalists and students gather at Wartburg Castle, calling for German unity and liberal reforms

Establishment of the Zollverein (Customs Union)

Mar 27, 1834

Prussia leads the creation of the Zollverein, an economic union that unifies trade among German states, excluding Austria.

First Opium War

1839

British forces attacked China after the Qing government banned opium imports.

Treaty of Nanjing Signed

Aug 29, 1842

Ended the First Opium War; Britain gained Hong Kong and forced China to open five ports to foreign trade.

Revolutions in Italy

1848

Uprisings break out across Italy demanding constitutional reforms and independence, notably in Sicily, Milan, and Venice.

Revolutions of 1848 in Germany

1848

From March 1848 to June 1849. German liberals and nationalists attempt to unify Germany under a constitutional monarchy, but the movement is crushed.

Frankfurt Parliament Convenes

May 28, 1848

The first attempt at German unification through a constitutional monarchy is made, but fails in 1849 when Prussian King Frederick William IV rejects the imperial crown.

Taiping Rebellion

1851

A massive anti-Qing rebellion influenced by Christian ideology and resentment of foreign influence.

First Italian War of Independence

Mar 23, 1852

The Kingdom of Sardinia (led by Charles Albert) fights Austria but is defeated.

Second Opium War

1856

Britain and France fought China again to expand trade privileges.

Plombières Agreement

Jul 21, 1858

Secret meeting between Cavour (Prime Minister of Sardinia) and Napoleon III (Emperor of France), securing French support against Austria.

Second Italian War of Independence

Apr 25, 1859

Sardinia and France fight Austria, leading to the annexation of Lombardy into Sardinia.

Expedition of the Thousand

May 11, 1859

Giuseppe Garibaldi and his Redshirts invade Sicily and Naples, leading to the fall of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

Fall of Beijing & Treaty of Tientsin

1860

Anglo-French forces burned the Summer Palace; China legalized opium and granted foreigners more rights.

Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy

Mar 17, 1861

Victor Emmanuel II is declared King of Italy, though Rome and Venetia remain outside Italian control.

Otto von Bismarck’s “Blood and Iron” Speech

Sep 30, 1862

Bismarck becomes Minister-President of Prussia and declares that German unification will be achieved through war (blood and iron) rather than diplomacy

Third Italian War of Independence

May 20, 1866

Italy allies with Prussia against Austria and gains Venetia after Austria’s defeat.

Austro-Prussian War (Seven Weeks’ War)

Jun 14, 1866

Prussia defeats Austria, establishing Prussian dominance in German affairs and dissolving the German Confederation. The North German Confederation is formed in 1867.

Proclamation of the German Empire

Jan 18, 1869

The German Empire (Deutsches Kaiserreich) is declared at Versailles, with King Wilhelm I of Prussia becoming Kaiser (Emperor).

Franco-Prussian War

Jul 19, 1869

France, fearing Prussian power, declares war. Prussia defeats Napoleon III, leading to German unification.

Battle of Sedan

Sep 2, 1870

Napoleon III is captured, marking the collapse of the Second French Empire and paving the way for the unification of Germany.

Capture of Rome

Sep 20, 1870

Italian forces seize Rome, ending Papal States' control, and making Rome the capital of unified Italy.

Treaty of Frankfurt

May 10, 1871

Ends the Franco-Prussian War; Germany annexes Alsace-Lorraine, creating tensions with France.

Law of Guarantees

May 13, 1871

Defines the Pope’s status after losing territorial power, he rejects it, leading to the Roman Question.

Anglo-Zulu War

Jan 11, 1874

British forces invaded the Zulu Kingdom, leading to its eventual conquest.

Bismarck’s Anti-Socialist Laws

Oct 21, 1874

Bismarck passes laws banning socialist parties, securing conservative control over the new German Empire.

Mahdist Revolt in Sudan

1881

Muhammad Ahmad declared himself the Mahdi and led a jihad against British-Egyptian rule.

Berlin Conference

Nov 15, 1884

European powers met to divide Africa without African representation.

Belgian Congo Established

May 29, 1885

King Leopold II was granted personal control over the Congo, beginning one of the most brutal colonial regimes.

Battle of Adwa

Mar 1, 1896

Ethiopia, under Menelik II, decisively defeated Italy, preserving its independence.

Boxer Rebellion

1898

Anti-foreign, anti-Christian uprising aiming to expel Westerners.

Fashoda Incident

Sep 18, 1898

Britain and France nearly went to war over Sudan but reached a diplomatic agreement.

Second Boer War

Oct 11, 1899

British forces clashed with Dutch-descended Boers over control of South Africa.

Eight-Nation Alliance Captures Beijing

Aug 14, 1900

Western and Japanese forces crushed the Boxer Rebellion and imposed heavy reparations on China.

Herero and Namaqua Genocide

Jan 12, 1904

Germany launched a campaign to exterminate indigenous groups in Namibia after an uprising.

Maji Maji Rebellion

1905

African resistance against German colonial rule in East Africa began but was violently suppressed.

Fall of the Qing Dynasty

Feb 12, 1912

Emperor Puyi abdicated after years of internal decline and foreign pressure, ending imperial China.

Africa’s Partition Completed

Aug 9, 1913

At the start of World War I, over 90% of Africa was under European control.

Treaty of Saint-Germain

Sep 10, 1918

After World War I, Italy gains South Tyrol Istria from Austria, completing territorial unification.

May Fourth Movement

May 4, 1919

Mass protests erupted after the Treaty of Versailles gave Germany’s Chinese territories to Japan.

Communist Victory & Western Expulsion

Oct 1, 1949

Mao Zedong declared the founding of the People’s Republic of China, ending most Western influence.