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Publication of John Locke's "Two Treatises on Government"
This work established the concept of natural rights, including life, liberty, and property, which significantly influenced revolutions like the American Revolution. -
The rise of "Enlightened Despots"
Several European monarchs, like Frederick II of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia, embraced some Enlightenment ideas and implemented reforms within their absolute rule, although not fully relinquishing power -
Montesquieu's "The Spirit of the Laws"
This treatise advocated for the separation of powers in government, dividing authority between the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. -
The publication of the "Encyclopédie"
Edited by Denis Diderot, this collection of articles promoted scientific knowledge and challenged traditional authority, disseminating Enlightenment ideas widely. -
Rousseau's "The Social Contract":
This work explored the idea of a social contract where citizens agree to give up some freedoms in exchange for the protection of a government, influencing ideas about popular sovereignty. -
Convening of the Estates-General:
The first major step towards the revolution, where representatives from the three social classes (clergy, nobility, and commoners, gathered to address France's financial crisis. -
French Revolution
This period of political upheaval created opportunities for military leaders like Napoleon to rise to prominence through their battlefield achievements. -
Tennis Court Oath
A pledge taken by members of the Third Estate commoners to continue meeting until a new constitution was drafted, marking their defiance against the monarchy.
Storming of the Bastille: -
National Assembly
A legislative body formed by the Third Estate, responsible for creating a new constitution -
Storming of the Bastille
A pivotal moment where Parisians stormed a royal prison, symbolizing the people's power to overthrow the monarchy. -
Abolishment of Feudalism
The dismantling of the feudal system, including aristocratic privileges. -
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
A document outlining fundamental human rights and freedoms, based on Enlightenment principles. -
Women's March on Versailles
A protest by Parisian women demanding lower bread prices, forcing the royal family to return to Paris. -
Rise of radical Jacobin clubs
The emergence of political groups like the Jacobins, advocating for radical change and pushing the revolution towards more extreme measures. -
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
An attempt to reorganize the Catholic Church in France, causing tension between the Church and the revolutionaries. -
Establishment of the French Republic
The official declaration of France as a republic, replacing the monarchy. -
Execution of Louis XVI
The execution of the king by guillotine, marking a significant shift towards radicalism in the revolution. -
Reign of Terror
A period of extreme violence and executions led by the radical Jacobin faction, particularly under Maximilien Robespierre. -
Thermidorian Reaction
A backlash against the Reign of Terror, leading to the overthrow of Robespierre -
Military Successes in Italy
Napoleon's early victories in Italy significantly boosted his reputation as a skilled commander, gaining him popular support. -
Egyptian Campaign
Though not a military triumph, Napoleon's expedition to Egypt further elevated his image as a daring leader and strategist. -
Coup d'état of 18 Brumaire
This event, where Napoleon and his allies forcefully overthrew the French Directory, marked his official seizure of power. -
Napoleon's coup d'état
Napoleon Bonaparte's seizure of power, marking the end of the French Revolution and the beginning of the Napoleonic era. -
Battle of Austerlitz
Considered Napoleon's greatest military victory, this battle solidified his control over Europe and secured his position as Emperor -
Beer Hall Putsch
also known as the Munich Putsch, was a failed 1923 coup attempt by the Nazi Party in Munich, Bavaria. On November 8-9, 1923, Hitler and his followers disrupted a political rally in a beer hall, aiming to seize power. The putsch resulted in violence and casualties, including 16 Nazis and 4 policemen killed -
The Enabling Act is passed.
The Enabling Act, passed on March 23, 1933, by the German Reichstag, granted the Reich government (led by Chancellor Adolf Hitler) the power to enact laws without the Reichstag's consent. This effectively bypassed the Weimar Constitution's checks and balances, enabling Hitler to rule by decree and paving the way for the Nazi regime's consolidation of power. -
Boycott of Jewish businesses
The Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses in Germany began on April 1, 1933, and was claimed to be a defensive reaction to the anti-Nazi boycott, which had been initiated in March 1933. -
Civilian Conservation Corps
The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) was a US government work relief program from 1933 to 1942 during the Great Depression, providing jobs for unemployed young men in conservation projects. It was a key part of President Roosevelt's New Deal, aiming to address both unemployment and the nation's natural resource needs. -
Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass):
This November 1938 event saw widespread violence against Jewish people and property across Germany and Austria, marking a turning point in the persecution of Jews. -
The Directory
A new government established after the Reign of Terror, which proved to be unstable.